Geographic Range
Antilocapra americana
is endemic to North America and distributed throughout the treeless plains, basins,
and deserts of western North America, from the southern prairie provinces of Canada,
southward into the western United States and to northern Mexico. Distribution of populations
within this range is discontinuous. In 1959, a population was introduced to Hawaii.
However, by 1983 the population was roughly 12 individuals and headed for extinction.
Habitat
Pronghorns are primarily found in grassland, sage scrub or chapparal, and desert.
The southern portion of their range consists mainly of arid grasslands and open prairies.
Throughout the rest of their range they are common in sage scrub and chaparral as
well, areas of dense shrubs with tough leaves. Pronghorns are particularly dependent
on sage brush for forage in these areas. Pronghorn feed primarily on sage, forbs,
and grasses. They have also been known to consume cacti in some areas.
There is an overlap in forage preferences with domestic sheep and cattle, so some
competition for food occurs. Overgrazing by sheep has been implicated in pronghorn
die offs, especially in winter.
Pronghorn habitat ranges from sea-level to about 3500 m. Their need for free standing,
fresh water varies with the moisture content of the vegetation they consume. They
may have to travel a great distance to find a water source. In winter, northern populations
depend heavily on sage brush. Pronghorn are commonly found along wind-blown ridges
where vegetation has been cleared of snow, although they will dig through snow with
their hooves to get to vegetation.
- Habitat Regions
- temperate
- terrestrial
- Terrestrial Biomes
- desert or dune
- savanna or grassland
- chaparral
- Other Habitat Features
- suburban
- agricultural
Physical Description
Pronghorns are small ungulates with barrel-shaped bodies. Females stand 860 mm at
the shoulder and males 875 mm at the should. Females are approximately 1406 mm in
body length and males are approximately 1415 mm. The tail is up to 105 mm long and
ears are up to 143 mm long. Their body weight is from 35 to 70 kg, depending on sex
and age. Their hair is dense and very coarse and is air-filled, providing excellent
insulation. Guard hairs are hollow and underlain by finer, shorter underfur. Guard
hairs are erectile for heat regulation. As more air becomes trapped in fur, the more
they are insulated from external temperatures. Their dorsal fur is a rufous brown
and they have creamy underbellies, rumps, and neck patches. Males have short black
manes on the neck, from 70 to 100 mm in length, as well as a neck patch and a black
stripe that runs across the forehead from horn to horn. Females lack these black facial
patches, but have a small mass of black hair around their nose. Their ears are small
and point slightly inward at the tip. Pronghorns have a patch of white, erectile fur
on their rumps that is visible at great distances. The mucous membranes and eyelashes
are coal black. Southern populations are paler in overall color than northern populations.
The horns are erect, with a posterior hook and a short anterior prong. The prong gives
rise to the common name “pronghorn”. This pronged pattern is unique to this species.
The horn is a keratinized sheath, black in color, and is deciduous. Horn sheaths grow
over a bony extension of the frontal bone, which is now called the cancellous bone
in ungulates. A new sheath forms under the old, which splits and is dropped just after
the rut each year. Both sexes have horns, although the horns of females are generally
small or absent, and never exceed ear length. Female horns average about 120 mm and
the prongs are not prominent. The horn begins to grow at the age of six months and
will be shed by 18 months. The maximum horn height for males will occur within 2 to
3 years of age and will average 250 mm, exceeding the length of the ear.
Pronghorn limbs are specialized for cursoriality, giving them enhanced speed and endurance.
They are the fastest known New World mammal, traveling at speeds of 98 km/h when sprinting,
and can hold a sustained speed of 59 to 65 km/h. The advantages to having speed and
endurance include the ability to forage over large areas, to seek new food sources
when familiar sources fail, and the ability to escape predators. Pronghorns have unguligrade
foot posture, which lengthens the legs by allowing them to stand on the tips of their
digits. The length of the radius bone is as long, or longer, than the femur. The ulna
is reduced and partially fused to the radius. The clavicle in ungulates has been lost
and the scapula has been reoriented to lie flat against the side of their chest where
it is free to rotate roughly 20° to 25° in the same plane in which the leg swings.
The ulna and radius have been reduced to eliminate the twisting and rotating of the
elbow. The reduction of bone and associated muscles in the distal limbs decreases
limb weight, giving them more speed. Pronghorns have modified their joints to act
as hinges allowing only motion in the line of travel. This has been done by introducing
interlocking spines and grooves in their joints. All these adaptations have made pronghorns
excel in cursorial locomotion, but they can no longer jump because they have lost
the suspension mechanism that
cervids
have. This explains their apparent fear of fences.
The dental formula of
Antilocapra americana
is 0/3-0/1-3/3-3/3, where incisors and canines only occur on the lower jaw. Pronghorns
have hypsodont crown height; discernable roots do not occur, allowing the cheek teeth
to be ever growing. An approximate age when the molars erupt varies slightly; the
first comes in at 2 months and the second and third come in around 15 months of age.
Replacement of incisors varies as the first is replaced at 15 months, the second at
27, and the third at 39 months. Canines are replaced between 39 and 41 months. Premolars
are all replaced at 27 months of age. The sequence of tooth eruption, replacement,
and wear is used to estimate the age of pronghorns. Cementum annuli analysis of the
first permanent incisor is used for older age classes.
Maximal rate of oxygen intake in pronghorns determines the peak at which the animal
can synthesize ATP by aerobic catabolism. This then determines how intensely the animal
can exercise. Pronghorns are an extreme example of evolutionary specialization for
high oxygen consumption. When comparing body weight to weight-specific consumption
of oxygen, pronghorns have values three times higher than the that expected for their
body size. This high oxygen consumption makes pronghorns Earth’s fastest sustained
runner. Unlike
cheetahs
, also one of the fastest animals on Earth, pronghorns produce ATP required to run
fast aerobically. They have exceptionally large lungs for their body size and exceptional
abilities to maintain high rates of blood circulation.
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- homoiothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- male larger
- male more colorful
- ornamentation
Reproduction
Pronghorns are polygynous. Males defend territories from March through the end of
the rut in early October. They defend a small harem of females in their territories
during that time. Males with territories that contain a water source and have topographic
features that help them corner does, do better than males without those features in
their territories. Depending on a female's body condition, she will search among territorial
males for potential mates. This behavior may last for two to three weeks. Pronghorns
have scent glands that emit pheromones to attract or identify mates. These pheromones
are important to interactions between sexes. Scent glands are located on either side
of the jaw, between the hooves, on the rump, and above the tail. The glands on the
neck are larger in males and are thought to be associated with sexual interaction
as they are more active during the rutting season. Before mating, a male will approach
a female from behind and shake his head to emit pheromones to attract the female.
Males also use scent gland secretions to mark tall grasses on territorial boundaries.
Males also mark territories with scrapes where they urinate and defecate, using a
stereotypes "sniff, paw, urinate, defecate" sequence that may be repeated. Male interactions
can include some or all of the following: 1) staring, 2) vocalization by the territory
holder (a decrescendo snort-wheeze), 3) approaching an intruder, which can be accompanied
by head thrashing, sneezes, and teeth grinding, 4) interacting with an intruder, and
5) chasing, which can be for only a few meters or up to 5 km. Male use of the snort-wheeze
vocalization is often accompanied by erection of the mane, rump patches, and the cheek
patches. If an intruder does not run away, then the two males walk in parallel to
each other in a slow, deliberate manner with their heads held low. If a fight occurs,
the males thrust their horns at each other in an attempt to do injury. Males end up
in horn-horn or head-head pushing battles in which they try to knock the other off
balance. Fights average only about 2 minutes long, but often result in serious injury.
- Mating System
- polygynous
Breeding occurs from mid-September to October in northern parts of the pronghorn range
and from July to October in southern parts of their range. Females ovulate from 4
to 7 ova at the time of mating. These ova quickly travel to the uterus and form blastocysts,
where they absorb nutrition for almost a month before implantation. Blastocysts develop
long, thread-like walls that begin to twist together and form knots. One quarter to
one third of blastocysts die of malnutrition when this knotting reduces the membrane
surface area. As many as 7 embryos may still survive this knotted blastocyst stage.
However, as the embryos develop, distal embryos are forced into the oviduct, where
they perish from lack of nutrition and are reabsorbed. The gestation period is about
252 days and births are synchronous, with all females giving birth within a few days
of each other. Females give birth to one or two fawns in the spring, typically they
have a single young in their first year of breeding and twins in subsequent years.
Females often labor on their sides, but stand as the front legs of the fawn begin
to emerge from the vulva. Females and their young form bands in the summer that roam
over the territories of one to several males. Pronghorns have 4 inguinal mammary glands.
Young are partially weaned by 3 weeks old, at which point they begin to eat vegetation
as well. Most female pronghorns breed in their second year, at about 16 months old,
although some females can breed as early as 5 months old. Males can breed in their
first year, but rarely do because older, dominant males monopolize breeding opportunities.
Males typically begin to breed in their third year.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- seasonal breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- fertilization
- viviparous
Female pronghorns care for their young from 1 to 1.5 years after birth, after which
the young will become independent. At the time of birth, the mother will consume the
afterbirth to prevent detection by predators. She also consumes any excrement of the
young for the first few weeks of their life to prevent detection by predators. For
several days after birth young are weak and unable to keep the pace with adults,
so mothers and young rest near a source of water until they gain their strength. Females
leave their young in a hidden location in vegetation while they forage, but remain
within two miles of them. Within minutes after birth, young pronghorns can stand on
their own and they nurse within 2 hours. Within days of birth, young pronghorns can
outrun a human and begin to travel and forage with their mother and other females
and young in summer bands. Siblings are generally on their own until they begin to
travel with their mother. Fawns play extensively in the summer herds, developing strength
and dexterity. Male pronghorns do not help in raising offspring.
- Parental Investment
- precocial
-
pre-fertilization
- provisioning
-
protecting
- female
-
pre-hatching/birth
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-weaning/fledging
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-independence
-
provisioning
- female
-
provisioning
Lifespan/Longevity
Female pronghorn have been aged at 16 years in the wild, though they seldom live past
9 years. The most common causes of death are predators, hard winters with deep snow,
lack of water, and hunting or car collisions. Pronghorns have been recorded living
11 years in captivity.
Behavior
The timing, length, and pattern of seasonal movements varies regionally. In general,
pronghorns form large wintering herds and disperse in the spring. In the summer smaller
herds are formed of up to 12 individuals. Young males form bachelor herds and older
males claim territories that they defend against other males, typically from late
March to October. Pronghorns may move up to 160 km from winter ranges to avoid very
deep snow. Natural barriers, such as rivers and mountain ranges restrict movement
and contribute to the discontinuous nature of their distribution. Manmade barriers
(fences, highways, railroads) now have a significant impact on movements and reduce
the carrying capacity of rangelands as pronghorn are forced to move longer distances
to find everything they need.
- Key Behaviors
- cursorial
- diurnal
- nocturnal
- motile
- migratory
- territorial
- social
- dominance hierarchies
Home Range
Pronghorns in Wyoming were estimated to range throughout areas of 2.6 to 5.2 square
kilometers in summer and early autumn. Daily ranges were from 0.2 to 0.4 square kilometers.
Territories are widely spaced and do not overlap. Winter ranges are larger, 6.5 to
22.5 square kilometers. Home range size is strongly affected by local conditions and
climate, which varies yearly.
Communication and Perception
Doe-fawn recognition seems to be through a combination of visual, vocal, and olfactory
cues. Scent glands are widely used in male-male and male-female behavioral interactions.
Scent glands are used to mark territories, attract potential mates, identify a mate,
alert danger, or deter other males intruding in their territory. Both sexes have rump
glands and interdigital glands; males also have a gland below each ear and on the
back.
- Other Communication Modes
- pheromones
- scent marks
Food Habits
Pronghorns are herbivores, eating stems, leaves, grasses and shrubs. Pronghorns have
been described as "dainty" feeders, feeding on small amounts of a wide variety of
plants. Particularly important in their is browse, especially sagebrush in winter.
Pronghorns on grasslands have been observed starving in winter, whereas nearby populations
in sagebrush survive well. Forbs with high water content are preferred in the summer
diet and grasses are generally eaten only when there is new growth. Cacti are also
eaten to some extent, especially in southern populations. Pronghorns use foregut fermentation
with rumination to break down cellulose. Their stomach is enlarged and compartmentalized
into four chambers, as in other ruminants. Water consumption varies with the water
content of the vegetation available locally. When tender leaves are available, with
moisture content of 75% or more, pronghorns do not seem to need to drink free-standing
water. In dry seasons or areas, pronghorns are typically found within 5 to 6 km of
water and may drink up to 3 liters per day.
Pronghorns must compete with introduced cattle (
Bos taurus
) and sheep (
Ovis aries
) throughout most of their range. In some areas, pronghorn are excluded from areas
used by sheep, because the sheep eliminate much of their preferred vegetation. In
other areas pronghorn and sheep seem to be able to coexist well. However, pronghorns
can do well on areas overgrazed by cattle because they prefer forbs and browse. It
is estimated that 1 cow can eat as much as 38 pronghorns. Fences constructed to enclose
cattle and sheep can prevent pronghorn movement across rangeland, resulting in starvation
and dehydration. Pronghorns can be considered a valuable part of rangeland management
because they eat noxious weeds.
- Plant Foods
- leaves
- roots and tubers
- wood, bark, or stems
Predation
Fawns or weaker pronghorns are preyed on by coyotes, bobcats, wolves, mountain lions,
golden eagles, and other predators within their range.
Pronghorns can use their horns to help defend themselves, but they primarily use their
speed to escape predators. They are capable of sprints up to 86 km per hour and sustained
speeds of 59 to 65 km/hr, making them one of the fastest land mammals. Pronghorns
also use their feet in fighting off predators. They have keen eyesight and can spot
an object from approximately two miles away. Pronghorns are curious animals and will
move towards an intruder until they can detect what it is. If they determine that
it is a threat, they will flee. When disturbed, pronghorns erect the white fur on
their rumps, which acts to warn others of a disturbance.
- Anti-predator Adaptations
- cryptic
Ecosystem Roles
Throughout their range pronghorns co-occur with
cattle
,
bison
,
sheep
, and
horses
. Pronghorns can improve rangeland quality for these other speces by eating noxious
weeds or invasive plants. Introduced livestock may overgraze areas they share with
pronghorn, thus reducing cover and quantity of food. The reduction of cover may increase
young mortality through predation.
Although there are few epizootic diseases that strongly affect pronghorn populations
there are 33 species of roundworms, 21 genera of bacteria, 14 viral diseases, 8 species
of protozoa, 5 species of tapeworms, 4 species of ticks, one fluke, and a louse fly
that are known to infect them. "Bluetongue" disease has resulted in extensive mortality
in some cases. It is an insect-borne viral disease (Bluetongue virus, BTV) that is
transmitted by midges (
Culicoides imicola
). Worm infections have also resulted in extensive fawn mortality in some areas. Pronghorns
that co-occur with sheep tend to have higher parasite loads than those in areas without
sheep. Pronghorns are the definitive host of a nematode worm that also infects
sheep
and
mule deer
: Pseudostertagia bullosa (Nematoda: Trichostrongyloidea). They can also be parasitized
by meningeal worms (
Parelaphostrongylus tenuis
) that are common parasites of
white-tailed deer
.
- sheep ( Ovis aries )
- cattle ( Bos taurus )
- bison ( Bison bison )
- horses ( Equus caballus )
- Pseudostertagia bullosa (Nematoda: Trichostrongyloidea)
- meningeal worms ( Parelaphostrongylus tenuis )
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Pronghorns are an important big games species in the western United States. Their
use of open habitat means often hunters have success rates of up to 90 percent.
- Positive Impacts
- food
- body parts are source of valuable material
- research and education
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Pronghorns are grazers that will take advantage of wheat or alfalfa fields during
the winter if there is deep snow. This may negatively impact crop yield. However,
most pronghorn populations occur in areas with little agricultural development.
- Negative Impacts
- crop pest
Conservation Status
It is estimated that up to 35 million pronghorns lived in North America before colonization
by western Europeans. By 1924 this number had decreased to less than 20,000. Pronghorn
populations have increased since that time and are now considered the second most
numerous game species in North America.
The IUCN Red List lists
Antilocapra americana
as lower risk/least concern. Populations are stable, widespread, and relatively
common throughout most of their range, with an estimated population size of 0.5 to
1 million. The U.S. Endangered Species Act recognizes two populations as endangered:
Sonora pronghorns (
A. a. sonoriensis
) and peninsular pronghorns (
A. a. peninsularis
). Populations of Sonoran pronghorn in Mexico have been protected since 1967 and have
undergone several recovery plans, the most recent in 1998. This population of pronghorn
is listed under the Convention of International Trade of Endangered Flora and Fauna
(CITES) Appendix I.
Other Comments
Common names for
Antilocapra americana
include pronghorn, pronghorn antelope, and berrendo (Spanish).
Antilocapra americana
has also been known by the synonyms
Antilope americanus
,
Antilope (Dicranocerus) furcifer
, and
Antilocapra anteflexa
.
There are currently five subspecies recognized: American pronghorns (
A. a. americana
Ord), Oregon pronghorns (
A. a. oregona
Bailey), Mexican pronghorns(
A. a. mexicana
Merrian), peninsula pronghorns (
A. a. peninsularis
Nelson), and Sonoran pronghorns (
A. a. sonoriensis
Goldman).
The fossil record dates to the Miocene.
Antilocapra americana
is the only extant species of a group that was once much more diverse, with 13 extinct
genera of
antilocaprines
known from the Pliocene throughout the current range of
A. americana
.
Additional Links
Contributors
Kandace Krejci (author), University of Alaska Fairbanks, Tanya Dewey (author, editor), Animal Diversity Web, Link E. Olson (editor, instructor), University of Alaska Fairbanks.
- Nearctic
-
living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- temperate
-
that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).
- terrestrial
-
Living on the ground.
- desert or dunes
-
in deserts low (less than 30 cm per year) and unpredictable rainfall results in landscapes dominated by plants and animals adapted to aridity. Vegetation is typically sparse, though spectacular blooms may occur following rain. Deserts can be cold or warm and daily temperates typically fluctuate. In dune areas vegetation is also sparse and conditions are dry. This is because sand does not hold water well so little is available to plants. In dunes near seas and oceans this is compounded by the influence of salt in the air and soil. Salt limits the ability of plants to take up water through their roots.
- tropical savanna and grassland
-
A terrestrial biome. Savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy. Extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical Africa and South America, and in Australia.
- savanna
-
A grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees, a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest. See also Tropical savanna and grassland biome.
- temperate grassland
-
A terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes (>23.5° N or S latitude). Vegetation is made up mostly of grasses, the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available. Fire and grazing are important in the long-term maintenance of grasslands.
- chaparral
-
Found in coastal areas between 30 and 40 degrees latitude, in areas with a Mediterranean climate. Vegetation is dominated by stands of dense, spiny shrubs with tough (hard or waxy) evergreen leaves. May be maintained by periodic fire. In South America it includes the scrub ecotone between forest and paramo.
- suburban
-
living in residential areas on the outskirts of large cities or towns.
- agricultural
-
living in landscapes dominated by human agriculture.
- endothermic
-
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- sexual ornamentation
-
one of the sexes (usually males) has special physical structures used in courting the other sex or fighting the same sex. For example: antlers, elongated tails, special spurs.
- polygynous
-
having more than one female as a mate at one time
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- seasonal breeding
-
breeding is confined to a particular season
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- fertilization
-
union of egg and spermatozoan
- viviparous
-
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female.
- young precocial
-
young are relatively well-developed when born
- diurnal
-
- active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
- nocturnal
-
active during the night
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- migratory
-
makes seasonal movements between breeding and wintering grounds
- territorial
-
defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement
- social
-
associates with others of its species; forms social groups.
- dominance hierarchies
-
ranking system or pecking order among members of a long-term social group, where dominance status affects access to resources or mates
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- pheromones
-
chemicals released into air or water that are detected by and responded to by other animals of the same species
- scent marks
-
communicates by producing scents from special gland(s) and placing them on a surface whether others can smell or taste them
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- cryptic
-
having markings, coloration, shapes, or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment; being difficult to see or otherwise detect.
- food
-
A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.
- herbivore
-
An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.
- folivore
-
an animal that mainly eats leaves.
References
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