Cerambycidae

Features
By Jade Collins

Diversity

Although there are 8 subfamilies in the Family Cerambycidae (longhorn beetles), all of the beetles share similar features. They all have antennas that take up most of their bodies. They have lifespans that are generally 1-3 years with the majority of that being in the larval stage. All of the beetles in this Family go through the life stages of eggs, larvae, pupae, then adults. All of the beetles feed on parts of plants or fungi, although, the part varies greatly between species. They can be found all over the world and at most elevations. These beetles lay their eggs in wood where they hatch as larvae and spend most of their lives.

Geographic Range

Most woodboring beetles have native ranges that fall into three regions: Palearctic, Nearctic, and Oriental. However, their native ranges also include the Australian, Ethiopian, and Neotropical regions. The beetles in these regions are mostly endemic to these regions, while the beetles in the first three regions are about 50/50 native and introduced. These beetles can occur at nearly every elevation from sea level to 4,200 meters. They also occur all over the world, being dispersed far beyond their native ranges. Most woodboring beetles are capable of flight which aids them in dispersal. However, huge dispersal has occurred because of unintentional human intervention. These beetles have been dispersed due to human trading and shipping of wooden materials, furniture, plants, and more. They can survive wherever a viable host plant is. They have dozens of known host plants and seem to be able to use any wooden object, including furniture, depending on the species.

Habitat

The woodboring beetles can exist at almost any elevation, in almost every part of the world, as long as they have a suitable host. These beetles spend most of their lives within their hosts, in a small home range. Because they need wood to survive, these beetles are mainly found in wooded or tropical areas. However, some species can survive in decaying wood, which expands their available hosts. The woodboring beetles typically lay their eggs in wood where they hatch into larvae that feed on the wood near the plant's sap production until they become adults. Rarely, adults or larvae will feed on other parts of the plants including the stems, roots, or leaves. The adults then reproduce and die shortly after, restarting the cycle.

Systematic and Taxonomic History

Previously, not much was known about the evolutionary relationship of the wood boring beetles to other taxons. They simply were not studied. It was known that they are a type of beetle that fall under arthropods, which has not changed. The closest relatives are other members of the order Coleoptera, or beetles. New research has uncovered the ancestral relations between current wood boring beetles and their ancestors. For example, it has been found that a preference for stressed, board-leaves tree hosts in ancestors has shifted to a preference for dead or living conifer trees. It was previously thought that their preference was dead or rotten wood. It was also previously thought that the type of host plant matters more than its condition, which new research has suggested is the other way around. The family of wood boring beetles ( Cerambycidae ) was originally classified into nine subfamilies: Anoplodermatinae , Aseminae , Cerambycinae , Lamiinae , Lepturinae , Parandrinae , Philinae , Prioninae , and Spondylidinae . This has since changed to only eight subfamilies: Cerambycinae , Dorcasominae , Lamiinae , Lepturinae , Necydalinae , Parandrinae , Prioninae , and Spondylidinae .

Physical Description

There are differences in body morphology/characteristics between the eight recognized subfamilies of the wood boring beetles, but the general morphology follows the same patterns. For the adults, these patterns include long antennae that are rarely more than 12 segments, usually 11 segments, and are prominent features that run the majority of the length of the body; eyes that are emarginate (have a notch in their tip); thorax without divisions; two prominent spurs on a lower segment of their legs; feet that have five sections with only four of them being noticeable; hard shells (elytra) covering the wings and abdomen; hind wings with a spur on the middle; and abdomens with five noticeable sections. Wood boring beetles usually have an elongated body and can range in size from less than 2 mm to greater than 170 mm, and range in color from solid dark browns and blacks to colorful patterns.

Geography doesn’t appear to have a huge impact on physical characteristics. The variations tend to be between subfamilies instead of geography. However, certain subfamilies can represent the majority of the wood boring beetles in a geographic region, suggesting that the region might have an impact on physical characteristics in certain regions. In wood boring beetles, the males and females are very similar with only slight differences. The larvae are also really similar between subfamilies, all being a whitish, yellowish color, with similar cylindrical body shapes and small sizes. The most distinguishing characteristic of the wood boring beetles is their long antennae that run the majority of their body length.

  • Sexual Dimorphism
  • sexes alike

Development

Wood boring beetles have four main life stages: eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults. Adults lay eggs on wooden structures to ensure the larvae have food when the eggs hatch. The eggs hatch into larvae shortly after being laid. The beetles then spend the majority of their lifetimes as larvae, eating and boring into wood and plants. Depending on the species, they can spend the entire time within the wood eating the area surrounding sap production, or on the plant eating the stems, leaves, and roots. After growing into their pupal stage through eating, they become adults. The transition from the pupal stage to the adult stage involved complete metamorphosis. In the adult stage, these beetles leave their wood, mate, reproduce, lay eggs, and die all within a few days to months and the cycle repeats. This whole cycle normally takes about 1-3 years in temperate regions, longer in colder regions. Some cycles have been documented to only last 2-3 months, however. And other cycles have lasted decades, though these aren’t common. Sexes are very similar with one of the only visual differences being the different lengths of their antennae - longer in males, shorter in females. Females are the ones to lay the eggs.

Reproduction

Since wood boring beetles are solitary creatures, mating doesn’t affect their nonexistent social structure. Since adult lives are so short, the location where they will lay their eggs plays a large role in finding mates. The adults - both female and male - locate a suitable host plant, then wait for a mate to find them on the host plant for reproduction. Most species can produce a pheromone to attract mates. The more common pheromones are “aggregation pheromones” which are produced by males of a species and attract both sexes. The less common pheromones are “sex pheromones” which are produced by females and only attract males. The majority of wood boring beetles are nocturnal (active at night) and likely use plant volatiles (basically plant pheromones) to choose the host plant. The few species that are diurnal (active during the day) likely rely more on visual cues like plant size to choose the host plant. After the host plant is chosen, pheromones are sent out to attract a mate. Once a mate comes, they reproduce and lay the eggs on the host plant, then die shortly after. It can be assumed that there’s not much competition between mates and it’s closer to first-come-first-serve. However, females can sometimes be picky about their mates and try to discourage mating. There is also a chance that the adult dies before they find a viable mate.

Female wood boring beetles must be fertilized by male wood boring beetles in order to produce viable eggs for most species. The larger a female is, the longer she’ll live and the more eggs she can produce. Both males and females mate with multiple partners and mate with each partner multiple times to increase fertility. While this is beneficial to most species, it doesn’t make any effect on other species. Polyandry (one female has multiple male mates) is detrimental to female reproductive success. Most likely because of too much stress from multiple male partners or fertility being most effective at a certain number of matings. Parthenogenetic reproduction (females can produce a viable egg without mating) is rare and only reported in a few species of wood boring beetles. The males mount the females in order to reproduce. During this, the female can choose to reject the male by kicking, bucking, and otherwise making it impossible to mate with them. In some species, the females will mate with any male that tries, suggesting a lack of courting rituals. However, in most species, the females will take a more active role in choosing their mates. A male can use one of two strategies to mate with a female. One, they can corner, attack, and even amputate the female to force copulation, or two, they can bite or stroke certain parts of the female to calm them down and aid in copulation. There is not much information on how soon the eggs are laid after copulation, however, it can be assumed that it is almost immediately considering the short lifespan of the adults.

Adult wood boring beetles die shortly after laying eggs, so there is no parental investment after laying eggs. However, due to the nature of their lifespans, adults are responsible for finding the offspring’s only food source. Both males and females search for viable hosts. The females lay the eggs. The host that the male or female found acts as shelter and food for their offspring.

Lifespan/Longevity

Most wood boring beetles are considered pests and are therefore only kept in captivity for research. During research, scientists can use certain techniques to lengthen lifespans, like refrigeration. A typical lifespan for members of this family is 1 to 3 years in temperate regions, longer in colder regions. Some lifecycles have been documented to only last 2-3 months and other cycles have lasted decades, though these aren’t common. Most of the lifespans are spent in the larval stage. The difference in time is due to development during this stage.

Behavior

Wood boring beetles as a family are solitary creatures. Because of this, they do not appear to have a social hierarchy. They do not interact except during mating, which is only when they are adults. Some species females are choosy about their mates and other species will mate with any male that is interested. They use chemical signals to find host plants and mates. Most adults are nocturnal (active during the night) and the ones that aren’t are diurnal (active during the day). When the wood boring beetles aren’t adults, they spend their time as burrowers inside a plant, not interacting with anything else if they can help it. This is the majority of their lives.

Communication and Perception

Wood boring beetles spend most of their lives eating the same plant, interacting with it using mouthpieces like mandibles and primitive eyes. Most adult species are nocturnal, so they rely more on chemical signals than eyesight, but diurnal species can use visual signals to communicate as well. They are a solitary family except during mating where they communicate with each other and possible host plants using chemical signals. They can also use substrate-borne vibrations over short distances to communicate with potential mates or competition. Most species have to touch each other with their mouth parts, antennae, or tarsi (part of the leg), however, in order to recognize each other. The females have contact pheromones on their bodies that help the males recognize them when touching them. Females can also leave harmless chemical trails while they’re walking to lead males to them. Most species males rely primarily on chemical signals from females to decide when to mate. Because of this, they can often attempt to mate with dead females or plants that have the females' chemical signals on them. Some species have organs that allow them to make a squeaking sound, and others rub their body parts together to make sound. They tend to make sounds when startled which indicates they might use it to ward away predators. Males also may use it to intimidate each other during competition for a mate.

Food Habits

Wood boring beetles are almost exclusively phytophagous (feeds on plants) or xylophagous (feeds on wood). The exception is a species that cannibalizes each other during the larvae stages. Most species feed on wood, usually dead or dying, when they are larvae. Some feed on living plant tissue and others can move about the soil to feed on roots. Adult wood boring beetles are different. Some adults don’t feed at all, others can feed on flowers, blossoms, fruit, leaves, sap, bark, and fungi.

Predation

Wood boring beetles spend most of their lives within plants, allowing them solitude and safety from predators. When they are adults, however, they have few tactics to ward off predators and escape them. Most species can fly and can use this to flee. Some species can create a sound by rubbing together their body parts to startle predators. Females lay their eggs on the surface of plants, hidden under bark or foliage, or inside a small slit they create with their mandibles to protect against predators.

Wood boring beetles have a lot of natural predators. These range from parasites to parasitoids to beetles, snakeflies, flies, earwigs, woodpeckers, other birds, spiders, and entomopathogenic (eats insects) fungi and worms. Eggs are most susceptible to parasites and predators that might find them sitting on the bark. Parasitoids and other predators like woodpeckers feed on larvae most often. A species of wood boring beetles also feeds on other larvae while they are in their larval stage. Natural predators to the wood boring beetles use similar chemical signals to find plants that the beetles would use as hosts, then land about the same time to feed on them. Predators can also use chemical signals from the beetles themselves to track the larvae in the wood. They can also use the vibrations the larvae put out while using their mandibles to eat.

Ecosystem Roles

Wood boring beetles serve as food for other organisms, low-level pollinators, and bioindicators for the health of plants. Wood boring beetles prefer dead and dying plants, so if they make their home on a plant, they can be used as an indicator of the poor health of that plant. They occur all over the world and don’t seem to need a certain type of plant as they can use any plant as their host.

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

Wood boring beetles are classified as pests and often harm the yield and health of the plants they use as hosts. However, these beetles can help in “biorecycling” wood since they eat it.

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

As mentioned previously, wood boring beetles are pests. They can destroy wood for furniture and harm agricultural plants, lessoning their yield and possibly killing them.

  • Negative Impacts
  • crop pest

Conservation Status

The wood boring beetles are considered pests and are not under any protections around the world. In fact, there are many movements around the world focused on controlling the spread of these beetles. Sometimes these measures call for extermination and sometimes just management. Beetle species like A. glabripennis are being eradicated from certain structures in Istanbul using chemicals. Similarly, H. bajulus and B. xylophilus species as well as others are being killed using hydrogen cyanide.

Other Comments

The name “Cerambycidae” comes from the Greek “kerambex”. Kerambex refers to horned beetle. The breakdown of kerambex may be “karabos” (beetle) and “keras” (horn).

Beetles in this family are known by a wide variety of common names, including longhorn beetles, longhorned borers, capricorns, longicorns, timber beetles, round-headed borers, sawyer beetles, and longhorns.

Encyclopedia of Life

Contributors

Jade Collins (author), Colorado State University, Tanya Dewey (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.

Nearctic

living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.

World Map

introduced

referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

Palearctic

living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.

World Map

introduced

referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

oriental

found in the oriental region of the world. In other words, India and southeast Asia.

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introduced

referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

Ethiopian

living in sub-Saharan Africa (south of 30 degrees north) and Madagascar.

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introduced

referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

Neotropical

living in the southern part of the New World. In other words, Central and South America.

World Map

introduced

referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

Australian

Living in Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, New Guinea and associated islands.

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introduced

referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

cosmopolitan

having a worldwide distribution. Found on all continents (except maybe Antarctica) and in all biogeographic provinces; or in all the major oceans (Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific.

temperate

that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).

tropical

the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.

terrestrial

Living on the ground.

taiga

Coniferous or boreal forest, located in a band across northern North America, Europe, and Asia. This terrestrial biome also occurs at high elevations. Long, cold winters and short, wet summers. Few species of trees are present; these are primarily conifers that grow in dense stands with little undergrowth. Some deciduous trees also may be present.

chaparral

Found in coastal areas between 30 and 40 degrees latitude, in areas with a Mediterranean climate. Vegetation is dominated by stands of dense, spiny shrubs with tough (hard or waxy) evergreen leaves. May be maintained by periodic fire. In South America it includes the scrub ecotone between forest and paramo.

forest

forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.

rainforest

rainforests, both temperate and tropical, are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground. Epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant. Precipitation is typically not limiting, but may be somewhat seasonal.

scrub forest

scrub forests develop in areas that experience dry seasons.

mountains

This terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains, either without vegetation or covered by low, tundra-like vegetation.

urban

living in cities and large towns, landscapes dominated by human structures and activity.

suburban

living in residential areas on the outskirts of large cities or towns.

agricultural

living in landscapes dominated by human agriculture.

riparian

Referring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody (usually, but not always, a river or stream).

ectothermic

animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature

bilateral symmetry

having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.

polymorphic

"many forms." A species is polymorphic if its individuals can be divided into two or more easily recognized groups, based on structure, color, or other similar characteristics. The term only applies when the distinct groups can be found in the same area; graded or clinal variation throughout the range of a species (e.g. a north-to-south decrease in size) is not polymorphism. Polymorphic characteristics may be inherited because the differences have a genetic basis, or they may be the result of environmental influences. We do not consider sexual differences (i.e. sexual dimorphism), seasonal changes (e.g. change in fur color), or age-related changes to be polymorphic. Polymorphism in a local population can be an adaptation to prevent density-dependent predation, where predators preferentially prey on the most common morph.

metamorphosis

A large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows. In insects, "incomplete metamorphosis" is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form, and "complete metamorphosis" is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms. Butterflies have complete metamorphosis, grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis.

polygynandrous

the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males, each of which also pairs with several different females.

semelparous

offspring are all produced in a single group (litter, clutch, etc.), after which the parent usually dies. Semelparous organisms often only live through a single season/year (or other periodic change in conditions) but may live for many seasons. In both cases reproduction occurs as a single investment of energy in offspring, with no future chance for investment in reproduction.

seasonal breeding

breeding is confined to a particular season

parthenogenic

development takes place in an unfertilized egg

sexual

reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female

fertilization

union of egg and spermatozoan

internal fertilization

fertilization takes place within the female's body

oviparous

reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.

male parental care

parental care is carried out by males

female parental care

parental care is carried out by females

diurnal
  1. active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
nocturnal

active during the night

motile

having the capacity to move from one place to another.

sedentary

remains in the same area

solitary

lives alone

tactile

uses touch to communicate

acoustic

uses sound to communicate

chemical

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

pheromones

chemicals released into air or water that are detected by and responded to by other animals of the same species

scent marks

communicates by producing scents from special gland(s) and placing them on a surface whether others can smell or taste them

vibrations

movements of a hard surface that are produced by animals as signals to others

visual

uses sight to communicate

tactile

uses touch to communicate

chemical

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

biodegradation

helps break down and decompose dead plants and/or animals

herbivore

An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.

folivore

an animal that mainly eats leaves.

omnivore

an animal that mainly eats all kinds of things, including plants and animals

References

Atmowidi, T., W. Anggraitoningsih Noerdjito. F. 2016. Diversity and Abundance of Cerambycid Beetles in the Four Major Land-use Types Found in Jambi Province, Indonesia. HAYATI Journal of Biosciences , 23/2: 56-61. Accessed July 26, 2023 at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hjb.2016.06.001 .

Bartlett, T. 2023. "Family Cerambycidae - Longhorn Beetles" (On-line). Bug Guide. Accessed July 26, 2023 at https://bugguide.net/node/view/171 .

Guadalupe Martínez-Hernández, J., A. María Corona-López, A. Flores-Palacios, M. Rös, V. Hugo Toledo-Hernández. 2019. Seasonal diversity of Cerambycidae (Coleoptera) is more complex than thought: evidence from a tropical dry forest of Mexico. PeerJ , 1: 1-17. Accessed July 26, 2023 at 10.7717/peerj.7866 .

Lee, S., S. Lee. 2020. Multigene phylogeny uncovers oviposition-related evolutionary history of Cerambycinae (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution , 145: 1-12. Accessed August 05, 2023 at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2019.106707 .

Ray, A., J. Francese, Y. Zou, K. Watson, D. Crook, J. Millar. 2019. Isolation and identification of a male-produced aggregation-sex pheromone for the velvet longhorned beetle, Trichoferus campestris. Scientific Reports , 9: 1-10. Accessed August 08, 2023 at https://doi-org.ezproxy2.library.colostate.edu/10.1038/s41598-019-41047-x .

Rossa, R., J. Goczał. 2021. Global diversity and distribution of longhorn beetles (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). The European Zoological Journal , 88/1: 289-302. Accessed July 26, 2023 at 10.1080/24750263.2021.1883129 .

Wang, Q. 2017. CERAMBYCIDAE OF THE WORLD Biology and Pest Management . Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Accessed July 28, 2023 at https://www.zin.ru/animalia/coleoptera/pdf/cerambycidae_of_the_world-biology_and_pest_management_2017_edit_by_q_wang.pdf .

To cite this page: Collins, J. 2023. "Cerambycidae" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed {%B %d, %Y} at https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Cerambycidae/

Last updated: 2023-23-05 / Generated: 2025-10-03 00:58

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