Geographic Range
European bee-eaters (
Merops apiaster
) have a broad distribution covering much of Europe and Africa with range estimates
up to 11,000,000 square km. These migratory birds can be found as far north as Finland
and range as far south as South Africa, extending east into some Asiatic countries
as well. Most commonly, European bee-eaters will breed and nest in southern Europe,
then migrate south during autumn and winter.
- Biogeographic Regions
- palearctic
- ethiopian
Habitat
European bee-eaters are commonly found near freshwater systems and inhabit a variety
of habitat types such as forest, savanna, shrubland, grassland, and agricultural areas.
The habitat for nesting can be specific involving only river systems or gravel pits
with steep exposed banks. European bee-eaters have also been found to dig burrows
directly into the ground. Food availability can determine the habitat occupied by
European bee-eaters. Many agricultural fields use bee-hives for pollination and
M. apiaster
will frequent those areas.
- Habitat Regions
- temperate
- terrestrial
- Terrestrial Biomes
- desert or dune
- savanna or grassland
- forest
- scrub forest
- Other Habitat Features
- agricultural
- riparian
Physical Description
European bee-eaters are mid-sized insectivores that have dark, thick, and slightly downward curved bills. A bright yellow chin and throat patch meet a blue chest that extends down to the flanks and belly. Dark lores and eye-stripe are contrasted by a white patch above the upper mandible and lower white eye-stripe extending from the lower mandible. A dark chestnut color covers the crown and nape, becoming lighter in color on the back. Upper tail coverts are variable, ranging from green to blue, with most of the tail being blue. Wing lengths average 44 cm for males and 49 cm for females. Weights of European bee-eaters are similar in males and females and range from 44 to 78 g. Total body length ranges from 27 to 30 cm.
Males and females, very similar in coloration, can be distinguished by the hue of
the greater coverts, being a chestnut in males and greenish-blue in females, and by
the median coverts, where males are a chestnut and females have a greenish hue. Juveniles
can be distinguished from adults by the color of the iris. In mature adults the iris
is a vibrant red and juveniles will have a grayish-olive-red color. Also, the chestnut
color found in adults is only green in juveniles.
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- homoiothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- sexes alike
Reproduction
European bee-eaters are monogamous and will generally stay together from year to year
if both survive. Courtship feeding has been observed of some male European bee-eaters,
where the male will bring food to the female a couple days before, during, and after
egg laying. Roughly 20% of nesting pairs have 1 to 4 helpers that exhibit cooperative
breeding, where a non-breeding male, likely a close relative, will assist the nesting
pair by sitting on the nest and catching prey for young.
- Mating System
- monogamous
- cooperative breeder
In central Europe, most European bee-eaters return to their breeding range in late April or early May. They will mate in May and dig out burrows around 1 m deep in sand pits or steep river banks. Females lay 4 to 7 eggs in late May to early June. They are laid in 2 day intervals and incubated 3 to 4 weeks before hatching asynchronously. Before young fledge asynchronously at around 4 weeks of age they undergo weight loss to reduce their weight closer to that of an adult. Asynchronous Hatching and fledging is thought to help offset sibling rivalry and allow better care of young with a variable food source like flying insects. Juveniles become independent at 1 to 2 months of age. Sexual maturity is reached within the first year, though juveniles are not always successful at breeding in their first year. Juveniles may come back to the same colonies and nest near relatives such as parents or siblings. These juveniles may become family helpers if they fail to nest.
They are either solitary or colonial nesters. One study found a negative effect on
nest success with increasing colony size. Isolated pairs with equal clutch size had
a higher rate of nesting success. It is thought that colonial breeding could still
be worthwhile if it increases adult survival.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- seasonal breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- oviparous
Both male and female European bee-eaters participate in excavating the underground nesting burrow. After the eggs are laid, the pair shares incubation responsibilities. Chicks are born altricial, without feathers and eyes closed, and rely on significant parental care for survival. The male "helper" will also share incubation and feeding duties, but is not as reliable as the breeding pair. Both parents provide food and protection for young until fledging. Some male European bee-eaters will continue to feed the female for several days during and after egg laying.
European bee-eaters exhibit very specific feeding behaviors that are difficult for
young birds to learn. Breeding pairs will continue to feed fledglings until the young
learn the skills to successfully forage for themselves.
- Parental Investment
- altricial
- male parental care
- female parental care
-
pre-fertilization
- provisioning
-
protecting
- female
-
pre-hatching/birth
-
provisioning
- male
- female
-
protecting
- male
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-weaning/fledging
-
provisioning
- male
- female
-
protecting
- male
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-independence
-
provisioning
- male
- female
-
protecting
- male
- female
-
provisioning
- post-independence association with parents
- extended period of juvenile learning
Lifespan/Longevity
European bee-eaters have been documented to live up to 5.9 years in the wild.
Behavior
European bee-eaters are migratory, diurnal birds that spend most of their time foraging
for food. It is common to see them sitting at a perch scanning for prey, then flying
out catching a prey item and coming back to the perch to subdue and consume it. These
birds are often found nesting in colonies, but may also nest singly as well. Mixed
colonies of European bee-eaters and blue cheeked bee-eaters (
Merops persicus
) can be found foraging together without competition because of minimal diet overlap.
Home Range
Often found in colonies, territories are formed 0.7 to 8 m around nesting sites during breeding season.
Communication and Perception
The family Meropidae (bee-eaters), most species being colonial, often will exhibit interspecific and intraspecific communication. Like most colonial species, European bee-eaters are very vocal while within the colony. Pairs often call to locate or otherwise communicate to each other. European bee-eaters have a limited repertoire, which consists of several, slight variations on a "preep" call. This call is given in rapid succession while in social groups, and takes on a "bubbly" characteristic during courtship.
European bee-eaters have been found to exhibit intraspecific “helping”. A nesting pair may accept a third party to help with incubating or feeding to increase nesting success. This social communication may be between related individuals and help fitness.
Mixed flocks of European bee-eaters and blue cheeked bee-eaters ( Merops persicus ) have been found to have better breeding success as a result of mixed species foraging offsetting interspecific competition. Interspecific communication has also been found to be defensive during nesting, involving fighting and avoidance, whereas intraspecific communication included sunning, preening, and mobbing of predators. The benefit of being a social communal species is having more eyes on the lookout for danger; European bee-eaters will use vocal communication to warn others about danger.
Like all birds, European bee-eaters perceive their environment through visual, auditory,
tactile and chemical stimuli.
- Communication Channels
- acoustic
Food Habits
As their name implies, European bee-eaters' diet consists of bees ranging in size
from large to small (Hymenoptera), but also includes dragonflies (Ondonata) and other
flying insects. Bee-eaters are quick on the wing and agile for catching flying insects.
When catching insects they will grasp them by the midsection, fly back to perch, and
hit them against their perch until movement ceases. When catching stinging insects
they will immobilize them and hit the sting against the perch to pull or rip it out,
and then toss the prey up vertically to swallow. Breeding pairs of European bee-eaters
continue to feed their fledglings until the young birds learn to successfully catch
and eat insects.
- Primary Diet
- carnivore
- Animal Foods
- insects
Predation
Montpellier snakes (
Malpolon monspessulanus
), ocellated lizards (
Lacerta lepida
), and black kites (
Milvus migrans
) are common predators of European bee-eaters. Nestlings are most vulnerable because
ground burrows are easily accessed by snakes and lizards.
Ecosystem Roles
European bee-eaters are known as ecosystem engineers because of their effects on arid environments through burrowing breeding behavior. Three ways have been suggested regarding how European bee-eaters impact the environment: (i) burrowing and soil removal allows rain, sunlight, and nutrients to penetrate soil. (ii) abandoned burrows provide shelter for other species to colonize the area (iii) deep burrows provide access to invertebrate prey items which can increase food web complexity.
The microclimate that is created by these burrows can be significantly different from the macroclimate. Some species that re-use burrows made by European bee-eaters include European rollers ( Coracias garrulus ), little owls ( Athene noctua ), pied wagtails ( Motacilla alba ), and rock sparrows ( Petronia petronia ).
Analysis of active European bee-eaters' nests detected several species of mites (
chicken mites
,
tropical fowl mites
) and larvae of
Diptera
, beetles (Tenebrionidae family), and moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera order).
- Ecosystem Impact
- creates habitat
- soil aeration
- Beetle larvae (Tenebrionidae Family)
- Larvae of moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera Order)
- Diptera ( Carnus hemapterus )
- Tropical fowl mites ( Ornithonyssus bursa )
- Chicken mites ( Dermanyssus gallinae )
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
European bee-eaters have not been recorded as a species that benefits humans in an economic manner. They are unique and beautiful birds that attract many birders and photographers.
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
European bee-eaters are seen as a pest by many farmers in central and southern Europe.
These birds are attracted to high densities of cultivated bees, and are frequently
persecuted by farmers. European bee-eaters may cause significant damage to a hive
if they prey upon the queen.
- Negative Impacts
- crop pest
Conservation Status
European bee-eaters are listed as a species of least concern by IUCN. Although their
numbers have been declining over the past decade, the population (480,000 to 1,000,000
breeding individuals) is still well above any level of threat.
Additional Links
Contributors
Tyler Petroelje (author), Northern Michigan University, Alec Lindsay (editor), Northern Michigan University, Rachelle Sterling (editor), Special Projects.
- Palearctic
-
living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Ethiopian
-
living in sub-Saharan Africa (south of 30 degrees north) and Madagascar.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- temperate
-
that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).
- terrestrial
-
Living on the ground.
- desert or dunes
-
in deserts low (less than 30 cm per year) and unpredictable rainfall results in landscapes dominated by plants and animals adapted to aridity. Vegetation is typically sparse, though spectacular blooms may occur following rain. Deserts can be cold or warm and daily temperates typically fluctuate. In dune areas vegetation is also sparse and conditions are dry. This is because sand does not hold water well so little is available to plants. In dunes near seas and oceans this is compounded by the influence of salt in the air and soil. Salt limits the ability of plants to take up water through their roots.
- tropical savanna and grassland
-
A terrestrial biome. Savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy. Extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical Africa and South America, and in Australia.
- savanna
-
A grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees, a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest. See also Tropical savanna and grassland biome.
- temperate grassland
-
A terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes (>23.5° N or S latitude). Vegetation is made up mostly of grasses, the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available. Fire and grazing are important in the long-term maintenance of grasslands.
- forest
-
forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.
- scrub forest
-
scrub forests develop in areas that experience dry seasons.
- agricultural
-
living in landscapes dominated by human agriculture.
- riparian
-
Referring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody (usually, but not always, a river or stream).
- endothermic
-
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- monogamous
-
Having one mate at a time.
- cooperative breeder
-
helpers provide assistance in raising young that are not their own
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- seasonal breeding
-
breeding is confined to a particular season
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- oviparous
-
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.
- altricial
-
young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth/hatching. In birds, naked and helpless after hatching.
- male parental care
-
parental care is carried out by males
- female parental care
-
parental care is carried out by females
- diurnal
-
- active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- migratory
-
makes seasonal movements between breeding and wintering grounds
- solitary
-
lives alone
- territorial
-
defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement
- colonial
-
used loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies. More specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits (a continuous, modular society) - as in clonal organisms.
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- soil aeration
-
digs and breaks up soil so air and water can get in
- carnivore
-
an animal that mainly eats meat
- insectivore
-
An animal that eats mainly insects or spiders.
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
References
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BirdLife International 2009, 2009. " Merops apiaster " (On-line). In: IUCN 2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.. Accessed January 12, 2010 at http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/142227/0 .
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Casas-Crivlle, A., F. Valera. 2005. The European bee-eater ( Merops apiaster ) as an ecosystem engineer in arid enviornments. Journal of Arid Enviornments , 60/2: 227-238.
Heneberg, P. 2009. Soil penetrability as a key factor affecting the nesting of burrowing birds. Ecological Research , 24/2: 453-459.
Hoi, H., C. Hoi, J. Kistofik, A. Darolava. 2002. Reproductive success decreases with colony size in the European bee-eater. Ethology Ecology & Evolution , 14: 99-110.
Horváth, G., M. Fischer, T. Szekely. 1992. The delivery of surplus prey to the nest by a pair of bee-eaters ( Merops apiaster ). Ornis Hung , 2: 11-16.
Kossenko, S., C. Fry. 1998. Competition and coexistence of the European Bee-eater Merops apiaster and the Blue-cheeked Bee-eater Merops periscus in Asia. Ibis , 140/1: 2-13.
Krebs, J., M. Avery. 1985. Central Place Foraging in the European Bee-eater, Merops apiaster . Journal of Animal Ecology , 54/2: 459-472.
Krebs, J., M. Avery. 1984. Chick growth and prey quality in the European Bee-eater ( Merops apiaster ). Oecologia , 64/3: 363-368.
Lessells, C., M. Avery, J. Krebs. 1994. Nonrandom dispersal of kin: why do European bee-eater (Merops apiaster) brothers nest close together?. Behavior Ecology , 5: 105-113.
Lessells, C., M. Avery. 1989. Hatching Asynchrony in European Bee-eaters Merops apiaster . Journal of Animal Ecology , 58/3: 815-835.
Lessells, C., G. Ovenden. 1989. Heritability of Wing Length and Weight in European Bee-Eaters ( Merops apiaster ). The Condor , 91/1: 210-214.
Petrescu, A., C. Adam. 2001. Interspecific Relations in the Populations of Merops apiaster L. (Aves: Coraciiformes) of Southern Romania. Travaux du Museum National d' Histoire Naturelle , 43: 305-322.
White, F., G. Bartholomew, J. Kinney. 1978. Physiological and Ecological Correlates of Tunnel Nesting in the European Bee-Eater, Merops apiaster . Physiological Zoology , 51/2: 140-154.
Yosef, R., M. Markovets, L. Mitchell, P. Tryjanowski. 2006. Body condition as a determinant for stopover in bee-eaters ( Merops apiaster ) on spring migration in the Arava Valley, southern Israel. Journal of Arid Enviornments , 64/3: 401-411.
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