Geographic Range
There are nine subspecies of
Panthera pardus
, which are distributed as follows:
Panthera pardus pardus
is in Africa;
Panthera pardus nimr
, Arabia;
Panthera pardus saxicolor
, Central Asia;
Panthera pardus melas
, Java;
Panthera pardus kotiya
, Sri Lanka;
Panthera pardus fusca
, the Indian sub-continent;
Panthera pardus delacourii
, southeast Asia into southern China;
Panthera pardus japonensis
, northern China; and
Panthera pardus orientalis
, far east Russia, on the Korean peninsula and in north-eastern China.
Habitat
Leopards inhabit a variety of terrain. They are most populous in mesic woodlands,
grassland savannas, and forests. They also occupy mountainous, scrub, and desert habitats.
They favor trees throughout their entire geographic distribution, and have been recorded
at 5638 meters on Mt. Kilimanjaro.
- Habitat Regions
- tropical
- terrestrial
- Terrestrial Biomes
- desert or dune
- savanna or grassland
- forest
- rainforest
- scrub forest
- mountains
Physical Description
Body size and color patterns of leopards varies geographically and probably reflects
adaptations to particular habitats. Leopards have short legs relative to their long
body. They have a broad head, and their massive skull allows for powerful jaw muscles.
The leopard's scapula has specialized attachment sites for climbing muscles. They
have small round ears, long whiskers extending from dark spots on the upper lip, and
long whiskers in their eyebrows that protect their eyes while moving through dense
vegetation. Their coat ranges from tawny or light yellow in warm, dry habitats to
reddish-orange in dense forests. Subspecies are distinguished according to unique
pelage characteristics. Their body is covered with black rosettes, which are circular
in East Africa and square in South Africa. They have solid black spots on their chest,
feet, and face and rings on their tail. Cubs have a smoky gray coat and their rosettes
are not yet distinct. Each individual has a unique coat, which can be used for identification.
Black panthers, which are most populous in humid forests, are leopards with recessive
melanistic genes. Savannah and woodland leopards tend to be relatively large while
mountain and desert leopards tend to be relatively small. Leopards are sexually dimorphic
as males tend to be larger than females. Females range in body mass from 17 to 58
kg and in length from 1.7 to 1.9 m. Males range in mass from 31 to 65 kg and in length
from 1.6 to 2.3 m.
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- homoiothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- male larger
Reproduction
Leopards are promiscuous, as both males and females have multiple mates. Females attract
potential mates by excreting pheromones in their urine. Females initiate mating by
walking back and forth in front of a male and brushing up against him or swatting
him with her tail. The male then mounts the female while frequently biting her nape.
Copulation last an average of three seconds with six minute intervals between each
copulation bout. A single breeding pair may copulate up to 100 times per day for
several days, during which time they share food resources.
- Mating System
- polygynandrous (promiscuous)
The reproductive season is year-round but peaks during the rainy season in May. In
China and southern Siberia, leopards mainly breed in January and February. Females
are in estrus for 7 days and have a 46 day long cycle. Gestation last 96 days and
females usually give birth once every 15 to 24 months. Typically, females stop reproducing
around 8.5 years old.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- year-round breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- viviparous
Leopard cubs weigh less than 1 kg at birth, and their eyes remain closed for the first
week. Mothers leave their cubs in the protection of dense bush, rock clefts, or hollow
tree trunks for up to 36 hours while hunting and feeding. They move den sites frequently,
which helps prevent cubs from falling prey to lions and other predators. Cubs learn
to walk at 2 weeks of age and regularly leave the den at 6 to 8 weeks old, around
which time they begin to eat solid food. Mothers share less than a third of their
food with their cubs. Cubs are completely weaned by 3 months old and independent
at just under 20 months old. Often, siblings maintain contact during the early years
of independence. Territories are flexible and young may linger in their natal area.
- Parental Investment
- altricial
- female parental care
-
pre-weaning/fledging
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-independence
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
- extended period of juvenile learning
Lifespan/Longevity
In captivity, leopards can live to be 21 to 23 years old, with the oldest known individual
being 27 years old. Wild leopards may live to be 10 to 12 years old, with the oldest
known individual being 17 years old. Survival rates for cubs range from 41% to 50%.
Behavior
Leopards are solitary, nocturnal carnivores. Although they sometimes hunt during
overcast days, they are less diurnal in areas close to humans in comparison to uninhabited
areas. They mark their territory with urine, feces, and claw marks and communicate
with conspecifics by growling, roaring, and spitting when aggravated and purring when
content. They also make a rasping cough to advertise their presence to conspecifics.
Leopards are most comfortable in the lower forest canopy, where they often feed, and
descend from the canopy head-first. They are comfortable in water and are adequate
swimmers. When hunting, leopards move with a slow, crouching walk. They can run at
bursts of up to 60 km/hour, jump more than 6 m horizontally and 3 m vertically. Leopards
are facultative drinkers and obtain much of their water requirements from ingested
prey. Leopard's have advanced vision and hearing, which makes them especially adept
at hunting in dense forests.
- Key Behaviors
- arboreal
- cursorial
- terricolous
- nocturnal
- motile
- solitary
- territorial
Home Range
Male leopards have a core range of about 12 km^2, with a home range of about 35 km^2.
Female's have a core range of about 4 km^2 with a home range of about 13 km^2. Similar
to other mammalian species, the home ranges of male's are larger and tend to overlap
with those of multiple females. In Namibia, the home ranges of males overlapped 46%
of the time and those of females overlapped about 35% of the time. Home ranges tend
to be larger in arid conditions.
Communication and Perception
Although leopards are silent most of the time, they may give a hoarse, rasping cough
at repeated intervals to advertise their presence to conspecifics. Males use this
unique call to announce territorial boundaries. If another leopard is in the vicinity,
it may answer with a similar vocalization and continue vocalizing as it exits the
area. Males also grunt at each other and females call to potential mates when in
estrous. Some leopards may purr while feeding.
- Other Communication Modes
- pheromones
- scent marks
Food Habits
Leopards are ambush predators, pouncing on their prey before it chance to react.
They approach potential prey by crouching low to the ground, getting as close as 3
to 10 m to prey before pouncing. Leopards are not likely to chase prey after the
first pounce. Once a prey item is captured, they immediately break the prey's neck,
causing paralysis. After breaking the prey's neck, leopards asphyxiate them and carry
the carcass to a secluded feeding location, typically in a nearby tree. They may
also cover prey carcasses in leaves and soil. Their tremendous strength allows them
to tackle prey up to 10 times their own weight.
Leopards generally prey upon mid-sized ungulates, which includes small antelopes (
Bovidae
), gazelles (
Gazella
), deer (
Cervidae
), pigs (
Sus
), primates (
Primates
) and domestic livestock. They are opportunistic carnivores and eat birds (
Aves
), reptiles (
Reptilia
), rodents (
Rodentia
), arthropods (
Arthropoda
), and carrion when available. Leopards prefer prey that weigh between 10 and 40 kg.
They are also known to scavenge from cheetahs (
Acinonyx jubatus
), solitary hyenas (
Hyaenidae
), and smaller carnivores as well. They are known to cache food and may continue
hunting despite having multiple carcasses already cached.
- Primary Diet
-
carnivore
- eats terrestrial vertebrates
- Animal Foods
- birds
- mammals
- reptiles
- fish
- carrion
- insects
- Foraging Behavior
- stores or caches food
Predation
Humans are the primary predator of leopards. Leopards are hunted as trophy animals
for their fur, and retaliatory killings by farmers protecting their livestock are
not uncommon. Lions (
Panthera leo
), tigers (
Panthera tigris
), spotted hyenas (
Crocuta crocuta
), and African wild dogs (
Lycaon pictus
) prey upon leopard cubs and are capable of killing adult leopards. Typically, when
an adult is killed it is due to a territorial confrontation. Many of the characteristics
that make leopards great predators also serve as excellent predator defense mechanisms.
For example, a leopard's spots allows them to travel inconspicuously and avoid detection.
- Anti-predator Adaptations
- cryptic
Ecosystem Roles
Leopards compete for food with lions (
Panthera leo
), tigers (
Panthera tigris
), spotted hyenas (
Crocuta crocuta
), and African wild dogs (
Lycaon pictus
). To avoid attacks from potential predators, leopards tend to hunt at different
times of the day and avoid areas where potential predators are most populous. When
competition for larger prey items is high, leopards prey on smaller animals, which
reduces interspecific competition. Leopards are host to many common felid parasites,
including lung flukes (
Paragominus westermani
), flat worms (
Pseudophyllidea
), spirurian nematodes (
Spiruroidea
), hookworms (
Ancylostomatidae
), lung worms (
Aelurostrongylus
), intestinal and hepatic parasites (
Capillaria
), and parasitic protozoa (
Sarcocystis
).
- lung fluke ( Paragominus westermani )
- flat worms ( Pseudophyllidea )
- spirurian nematodes ( Spiruroidea )
- hookworms ( Ancylostomatidae )
- lung worms ( Aelurostrongylus )
- intestinal and hepatic parasites ( Capillaria )
- parasitic protozoa ( Sarcocystis )
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Leopards can be seen in National Parks throughout Asia and Africa. They help control
baboon populations and disperse seeds that stick to their fur. Chiefs and warriors
from tribal cultures throughout the leopard's geographic range wear their fur as a
symbol of honor and courage. Tribal medicine men and women suggest leopard skins
as a remedy for bad omens. Leopards are often captured for pet trade and are targeted
by trophy hunters as well.
- Positive Impacts
- pet trade
- body parts are source of valuable material
- ecotourism
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
When natural prey abundances are low, leopards have been known to kill livestock.
Injured or sickly leopards have been known to hunt humans as easy prey.
- Negative Impacts
-
injures humans
- bites or stings
Conservation Status
Leopards are declining in parts of their geographic range due to habitat loss and
fragmentation, and hunting for trade and pest control. As a result, leopards are listed
as "near threatened" on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Leopards appear to
show some resistance to minor habitat disturbances and are relatively tolerant of
humans. Currently, leopards are protected throughout most of their range in west
Asia; however, populations in this part of their range are too small to maintain stable
growth. Although habitat reserves and national parks exist throughout their geographic
range in Africa, a majority of leopards live outside these protected areas. Although
leopards are the most populous of the "great cats", 5 of 9 subspecies are listed as
endangered or critically endangered.
Additional Links
Contributors
Ashley Hunt (author), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, Phil Myers (editor, instructor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, John Berini (editor), Animal Diversity Web Staff.
- Palearctic
-
living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- oriental
-
found in the oriental region of the world. In other words, India and southeast Asia.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Ethiopian
-
living in sub-Saharan Africa (south of 30 degrees north) and Madagascar.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- tropical
-
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.
- terrestrial
-
Living on the ground.
- desert or dunes
-
in deserts low (less than 30 cm per year) and unpredictable rainfall results in landscapes dominated by plants and animals adapted to aridity. Vegetation is typically sparse, though spectacular blooms may occur following rain. Deserts can be cold or warm and daily temperates typically fluctuate. In dune areas vegetation is also sparse and conditions are dry. This is because sand does not hold water well so little is available to plants. In dunes near seas and oceans this is compounded by the influence of salt in the air and soil. Salt limits the ability of plants to take up water through their roots.
- tropical savanna and grassland
-
A terrestrial biome. Savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy. Extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical Africa and South America, and in Australia.
- savanna
-
A grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees, a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest. See also Tropical savanna and grassland biome.
- temperate grassland
-
A terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes (>23.5° N or S latitude). Vegetation is made up mostly of grasses, the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available. Fire and grazing are important in the long-term maintenance of grasslands.
- forest
-
forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.
- rainforest
-
rainforests, both temperate and tropical, are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground. Epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant. Precipitation is typically not limiting, but may be somewhat seasonal.
- scrub forest
-
scrub forests develop in areas that experience dry seasons.
- mountains
-
This terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains, either without vegetation or covered by low, tundra-like vegetation.
- endothermic
-
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- polygynandrous
-
the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males, each of which also pairs with several different females.
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- year-round breeding
-
breeding takes place throughout the year
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- viviparous
-
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female.
- altricial
-
young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth/hatching. In birds, naked and helpless after hatching.
- female parental care
-
parental care is carried out by females
- arboreal
-
Referring to an animal that lives in trees; tree-climbing.
- nocturnal
-
active during the night
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- solitary
-
lives alone
- territorial
-
defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- pheromones
-
chemicals released into air or water that are detected by and responded to by other animals of the same species
- scent marks
-
communicates by producing scents from special gland(s) and placing them on a surface whether others can smell or taste them
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- carrion
-
flesh of dead animals.
- stores or caches food
-
places a food item in a special place to be eaten later. Also called "hoarding"
- cryptic
-
having markings, coloration, shapes, or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment; being difficult to see or otherwise detect.
- pet trade
-
the business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets.
- ecotourism
-
humans benefit economically by promoting tourism that focuses on the appreciation of natural areas or animals. Ecotourism implies that there are existing programs that profit from the appreciation of natural areas or animals.
- carnivore
-
an animal that mainly eats meat
References
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Breitenmoser, U., C. Breitenmoser-Wursten, P. Henschel, L. Hunter. 2008. "IUCN Red List" (On-line). Panthera Pardus. Accessed March 18, 2009 at http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/15961 .
Friedman, H., V. Case. 2002. "Davidson" (On-line). Leopard (Panthera Pardus). Accessed March 25, 2009 at http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/behavior/Spring2002/Friedman/friedman.html .
Guggisberg, C. 1975. Wild Cats of the World . New York: Taplinger Publishing Company.
Hayward, M., P. Henschel, J. O'Brien, M. Hofmeyr, G. Balme, G. Kerley. 2006. Prey Preferences of the Leopard (Panthera pardus). Journal of Zoology , 270/2: 298-313. Accessed April 08, 2009 at http://www3.interscience.wiley.com.proxy.lib.umich.edu/journal/118623979/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 .
Hunter, L., G. Hinde. 2005. Cats of Africa: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation . United Kingdom: New Holland Publisher.
Laman, T., C. Knott. 1997. An Observation of Leopard (Panthera pardus Linnaeus) mating behavior in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology , 35/2: 165-167. Accessed April 08, 2009 at http://www3.interscience.wiley.com.proxy.lib.umich.edu/cgi-bin/fulltext/119170005/PDFSTART .
Macaskill, S. 2009. "Wildlife Pictures Online" (On-line). Leopard Information. Accessed March 25, 2009 at http://www.wildlife-pictures-online.com/leopard-information.html .
Ngoprasert, D., A. Lynam, G. Gale. 2007. Human disturbance affects habitat use and behaviour of Asiatic leopard Panthera pardus in Kaeng Krachan National Park, Thailand. ORYX , 41(3): 343-351. Accessed April 09, 2009 at http://journals.cambridge.org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=1383712 .
Nowak, R., E. Walker. 1999. Walker's mammals of the World . Baltimore, MD: JHU Press.
Nowell, K., P. Jackson. 1996. Wild Cats: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan . Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
Patton, S., A. Rabinowitz. 1994. Parasites of Wild Felidae in Thailand: a Coprological Survey. Journal of Wildlife Diseases , 30(3): 472-475. Accessed April 08, 2009 at http://www.jwildlifedis.org/cgi/content/abstract/30/3/472 .
Stander, P., P. Haden, G. Kaqece. 1997. The Ecology of Associality in Namibian Leopards. Journal of Zoology , 242: 343-364. Accessed April 08, 2009 at http://apps.isiknowledge.com.proxy.lib.umich.edu/full_record.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=4&SID=2F21jJFPOHbMGP5IDa9&page=1&doc=1 .
2009. "African Wildlife Foundation" (On-line). Leopard. Accessed March 18, 2009 at http://www.awf.org/content/wildlife/detail/leopard .
1997. "Thinkquest: Library" (On-line). Wild Habitat: Leopard (Panthera pardus). Accessed March 18, 2009 at http://library.thinkquest.org/11234/leopard_any.html .