Paraxerus cepapi

Geographic Range

Paraxerus cepapi (Smith's bush squirrel) is found in Eastern, Central, and Southern Africa including Southern Angola, Northern Namibia, Southeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Western Tanzania, Malawi, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Northern South Africa.

There are many subspecies recognized by geographic region. Paraxerus c. cepapi is found in South Africa, Southern Botswana, and Zimbabwe. Paraxerus c. bororensis and P. c. soccatus are found north of the Zambezi River. Paraxerus c. carpi lives near the junction of the Messenguezi and Zambezi rivers in Mozambique. Paraxerus c. chobiensis is found in Northern Namibia, Northern Botswana, and Southern Angola. Paraxerus c. phalaena is found in Central and Northwestern Namibia. Paraxerus c. quotus lives in Southeastern Katanga. Paraxerus c. yulei is found in Northeastern Zambia, Western Tanzania, and Northern Malawi. Paraxerus c. sindi is found in Southern Malawi and the Tete District in Mozambique.

• Biogeographic Regions
• ethiopian ethiopian
  • native native

Habitat

Smith's bush squirrels are found in areas that provide appropriate nesting holes. These are commonly savanna, mopane and acacia woodlands. Although these squirrels mostly live in trees, they will also nest in holes on the ground, between rocks, and in house roofs.

• Habitat Regions
• terrestrial terrestrial

• Terrestrial Biomes
• savanna or grassland savanna or grassland
• forest forest

Physical Description

Smith's bush squirrels are medium-sized African bush squirrels. The coat is yellow to brown in color but can vary by region. In general, the dorsal coat is a brownish yellow or gray color, while the ventral coat is a white or gray color with a buff coloration on the chest. The face has white stripes both above and below the eyes and cheeks that are a subtle brownish yellow color. Smith's bush squirrels have long, bushy tails with a black and yellow to brown coloration. Adults have an average body length measuring 238.5 mm and an average body mass of 222.85 g.

Subspecies of P. cepapi can be distinguished by coat colorations and markings. Paraxerus.c. yulei is a larger squirrel that has gray shoulders with tan gray sides, gray markings on the belly, and gray white feet. Paraxerus.c. soccatus can be distinguished by its gray white feet and lack of yellow highlights. Paraxerus.c. bororensis has a darker coloration than Paraxerus.c. cepapi with a gray coloration on the sides of the body and bottom of the hind limbs. Paraxerus.c. quotus is distinguished by its overall darker coloration. Paraxerus.c. carpi is approximately half the size of Paraxerus.c. cepapi and lighter in color. The underside of the tail in Paraxerus.c. sindi is ochraceous. Paraxerus.c. phalaena is distinguished by gray coloration on the back, head, shoulder, hips, and legs. The feet are also a paler white than the subspecies Paraxerus.c. cepapi . Paraxerus.c. chobiensis has a whiter coloration on its ventral side and toes than Paraxerus.c. cepapi . Paraxerus.c. cepapoides has a rusty coloration with tawny markings on the back and thighs.

• Other Physical Features
• endothermic endothermic
• homoiothermic
• bilateral symmetry bilateral symmetry

• Sexual Dimorphism
• sexes alike

Reproduction

Mating in Paraxerus cepapi is initiated by the female and only occurs in the morning. The female will emit a rattle call. In response, the male will produce a low pitched nasal murmur and chase the female. During this chase, both the males and females will flick their tails and make clicking sounds. During copulation, the male will allogroom the female; after copulation, both sexes will auto groom.

• Mating System
• polygynous polygynous

The gestation period for Paraxerus cepapi is 56 days. They usually only have one litter a year in the wild, but they can produce up to three litters in captivity. In captivity, the interbirth interval lasts 61 days. In Botswana, P. cepapi will give birth during warm wet months, and will not birth during May and September. In South Africa, P. cepapi will tend to give birth from October to January. A study by Susanne Viljoen in 1977 noted observations of breeding synchronization by oestrous vocalization in P. cepapi . Even though breeding can occur throughout the year, Viljoen noted that most young were born during one week in November. It is thought that breeding synchronization helps ensure that more young P. cepapi will reach adult weight. More observations by Viljoen also showed that food availability plays a role in reproduction. In general, females mate and give birth when food supply is high. The young will open their eyes 7 to 9 days after birth and leave the nest willingly 18 to 22 days after birth. Young P. cepapi are weaned between days 29 and 42 and reach sexual maturity between 6 to 10 months.

• Key Reproductive Features
• iteroparous iteroparous
• seasonal breeding seasonal breeding
• gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
• sexual sexual
• viviparous viviparous
• post-partum estrous

Males and females care for their young. Sometimes males practice infanticide. Females carry their young in their mouth by grasping the hind legs. Once in place, the young hold on to the mother with their arms, legs, and tail. A mother will continue to move their young in this way up until 4 weeks of age, at which time the young resist. From birth to 6 months of age, the young Paraxerus cepapi must follow the parents to eat solid foods. Neither parent will deliver solid food to the young in the nest. Once the young reach sexual maturity, they are forced to leave the group.

• Parental Investment
• altricial altricial
• male parental care male parental care
• female parental care female parental care
• pre-fertilization
  • provisioning
  • protecting
    • female
• pre-hatching/birth
  • provisioning
    • female
  • protecting
    • female
• pre-weaning/fledging
  • provisioning
    • female
  • protecting
    • male
    • female

Lifespan/Longevity

Little is known about the lifespan of Paraxerus cepapi in the wild; however, in captivity, one squirrel lived for 9.6 years.

Behavior

Paraxerus cepapi is a social squirrel. They live in groups of one or two adults and many juveniles. Family groups consist of 2 to 12. These groups nest together in trees, ground holes, house roofs, and in-between rocks. Smith's bush squirrels are diurnal and arboreal. Although P. cepapi spends a majority of its time above ground in trees, it occasionally scavenges the ground for fallen foods, such as fruit. The social hierarchy within these groups can be seen during feeding and interactions such grooming, chasing and fighting. They are also territorial and mark areas 0.3 to 1.26 ha in size by mouth wiping, urinating and anal dragging. The only time these territories are not defended is during mating season when other squirrels are allowed to enter.

• Key Behaviors
• arboreal arboreal
• scansorial
• diurnal diurnal
• motile motile
• sedentary sedentary
• territorial territorial
• social social

Home Range

Smith's bush squirrels mark areas .3 to 1.26 ha in size by mouth wiping, urinating, and anal dragging.

Communication and Perception

Smith's bush squirrels are able to communicate using clicking and rattling vocalizations. If disturbed, they will grunt and growl. Their low intensity alarm call consists of three “chir” or “click” sounds. This is used as a warning or territorial defense. They also have a high intensity alarm call composed of six or seven high pitched notes; this is similar to a bird call or whistle. When threatened, P. cepapi is known to flick their tail and head bob.

To assert dominance, a dominant P. cepapi will narrow its eyes at a submissive squirrel. In which case, the submissive squirrel will run away.

During mating, females will click while the males produce a low pitched nasal murmur.

• Communication Channels
• visual visual
• tactile tactile
• acoustic acoustic
• chemical chemical

• Other Communication Modes
• scent marks scent marks

• Perception Channels
• visual visual
• tactile tactile
• acoustic acoustic
• chemical chemical

Food Habits

Smith's bush squirrels are mostly vegetarian, consuming many plants, seeds, berries, flowers, and some arthropods. Although opportunistic, they prefer seeds and gums of acacia, and seeds and flowers of aloes. They will also consume termites. In East Africa, the squirrels will also eat insects, bird eggs, and euphorbia leaves.

Smith's bush squirrels will store their food at the bases of trees.

• Primary Diet
• herbivore herbivore
  • folivore folivore
  • frugivore frugivore
  • granivore granivore

• Animal Foods
• eggs
• insects
• terrestrial non-insect arthropods

• Plant Foods
• leaves
• seeds, grains, and nuts
• fruit
• flowers

• Foraging Behavior
• stores or caches food stores or caches food

Predation

Predators of the Paraxerus cepapi include snakes, raptors and carnivorous mammals.

Ecosystem Roles

Paraxerus cepapi store food at the bases of trees. This plays a large role in the dispersal of savanna species.

• Ecosystem Impact
• disperses seeds

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

There is little known about the benefits P. cepapi provide to humans.

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

There are no known adverse effects of P. cepapi on humans.

Conservation Status

Paraxerus cepapi is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List.

Other Comments

Paraxerus cepapi is also known as yellow-footed squirrel.

Additional Links

Encyclopedia of Life

Contributors

Alexa Pronga (author), University of Wisconsin - Stevens Point, Christopher Yahnke (editor), University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, Tanya Dewey (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.

References

Emmons, L. 1979. Observations on Litter Size and Development of Some African Rainforest Squirrels. Biotropica , 11: 207-213. Accessed April 29, 2016 at http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.uwsp.edu/stable/2388040?sid=primo&origin=crossref&seq=3#page_scan_tab_contents .

Grubb, P. 2008. "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species" (On-line). Paraxerus cepapi. Accessed April 27, 2016 at http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/summary/16205/0 .

Hoogstraal, H., K. El Kammah. 1974.

Notes on African Haemaphysalis Ticks. XII. H. (Rhipistoma) zumpti sp. n., a Parasite of Small Carnivores and Squirrels in Southern Africa (Ixodoidea: Ixodidae)

Jones, K., J. Bielby, M. Cardillo, S. Fritz, J. O'Dell. 2009. PanTHERIA: a species-level database of life history, ecology, and geography of extant and recently extinct mammals. Ecology , 90: 2648. Accessed April 29, 2016 at http://esapubs.org/archive/ecol/E090/184/#data .

Mason, N. 2007. "Paraxerus flavovittis" (On-line). Animal Diversity Web. Accessed March 15, 2016 at http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Paraxerus_flavovittis/#026e5634d93a70b74f193027497e7912 .

Thorington, R., J. Koprowski, M. Steele, J. Whatton. 2012. Squirrels of the World . Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Viljoen, S., S. Du Toit. 1985.

Postnatal Development and Growth of Southern African Tree Squirrels in the Genera Funisciurus and Paraxerus

Viljoen, S. 1977. Factors affecting breeding synchronization in an African bush squirrel (Paraxerus cepapi cepapi). The Journal of the Society for Reproduction and Fertility , 50: 125-127. Accessed April 27, 2016 at http://www.reproduction-online.org/content/50/1/125 .

Weigl, R. 2005. Longevity of Mammals in Captivity; from the Living Collections of the World . Stuttgart: Kleine Senckenberg-Reihe 48. Accessed April 27, 2016 at http://genomics.senescence.info/species/biblio.php?id=0671 .

2005. "Encyclopedia of Life" (On-line). Paraxerus cepapi. Accessed April 27, 2016 at http://eol.org/pages/321419/details .