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Peltophryne lemurRidge-headed Toad

By Julie Javorka

Geographic Range

Peltophryne lemur, the Puerto Rican crested toad, is endemic to Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. It no longer occurs on Virgin Gorda and is found today only in one area of Puerto Rico. There were two populations, one in the North (Quebradillas) and one in the South (Guánica). The northern population is apparently extirpated and was last reported in 1991. The natural southern population (not including reintroduced populations) is found in 3 subpopulations: in the Guánica Commonwealth Forest, Ciénaga in Yauco (rediscovered in 2010), and the Punta Ventana pond in Guaynilla (discovered in 2008). ("Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur) 5 year review summary and evaluation", 2016; Angulo, 2010; Joglar, et al., 2007; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017)

Habitat

Puerto Rican crested toads inhabit subtropical dry forest in the south, with small deciduous trees and less than 750 mm of rain annually, and subtropical moist forest in the north, with semi-evergreen and evergreen trees and 1100 mm of rain per year. The habitat of the toads in the Guánica Commonwealth Forest is upland deciduous and semi-evergreen forests as well as scrub forest. The microclimate ranges from 81 to 85°F and 66% to 83% humidity. Puerto Rican crested toads spend much of their time burrowed in the ground. The area gets an average of 890 mm (35 in.) of rain each year. The dry season is from December to April, while the wet is from August to November. They live at elevations ranging from sea level to 50 m above sea level. ("Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur) 5 year review summary and evaluation", 2016; Angulo, 2010; Joglar, et al., 2007; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017)

  • Aquatic Biomes
  • temporary pools
  • Range elevation
    Sea level to 50 m
    to 164.04 ft

Physical Description

Puerto Rican crested toads are named for the distinct bony crests on their heads. They are medium-sized toads, from 64 to 120 mm long from snout to vent; females are larger than males. The snout is turned up. The basic dorsal coloration is brown to yellow brown with black-brown blotches; underneath, they are a cream color with dark spots. Juveniles have a chevron pattern on their backs and have a rust to salmon color on their backs and sides. The skin is textured, and the eyes are gold with black flecks. Breeding males are olive green and gold, while females are a darker brown with rougher skin and larger crests. In the breeding season, males have yellow sides and nuptial pads on their front feet on the first and second digits. ("Puerto Rican crested toad", 2017a; Joglar, et al., 2007; Lentini, 2007; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017)

  • Sexual Dimorphism
  • female larger
  • sexes colored or patterned differently
  • male more colorful
  • sexes shaped differently
  • Range length
    64 to 120 mm
    2.52 to 4.72 in

Development

Eggs are deposited in water and hatch into free-swimming larvae (tadpoles) in about 24 hours. Metamorphosis to the terrestrial form takes 14to 21 days or longer due to temperature, food availability, and other variables. ("Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur) 5 year review summary and evaluation", 2016; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017)

Reproduction

Puerto Rican crested toads are thought to breed once annually. Some individuals may breed biannually, but more research is needed on this point. When it rains, males go to temporary ponds and call. When there is 7 in of rain or more, toads from 1 to 2 km away move to the breeding pond; when there is 7 to 13 in, breeding populations come from 3 km away. ("Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur) 5 year review summary and evaluation", 2016; "Puerto Rican crested toad", 2017a; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017)

In Guánica, reproduction is intermittent, and is initiated by heavy rain; it appears that at least 2 inches of rain must fall to stimulate breeding. A decrease in barometric pressure caused by a hurricane or tropical storm can also cause the toads to move to the temporary breeding ponds.Breeding has been observed in all months except March, though conditions are most suitable in the rainy season, particularly April and May, and in the hurricane season occurring from August to October. Long black strands of up to 150,000 eggs are deposited in aquatic plants during amplexus (male gripping the female from above to fertilize the eggs). The female leaves the pond, while the male may remain for a few days. After metamorphosis, toadlets move into forests and upland areas, finding shelter in groups of 15 to 30. Researchers have found that 2 cm long toads moved as much as 19 m in a night and 1.5 cm toads moved 14 m in the span of 7 hours. The age of maturity is unknown in the natural habitat but is 1 year or less in captivity. ("Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur) 5 year review summary and evaluation", 2016; "Puerto Rican crested toad", 2017a; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017)

  • Breeding interval
    Puerto Rican crested toads may breed biannually, but more research is needed.
  • Breeding season
    Breeding is seen in all months except March.
  • Average number of offspring
    150,000
  • Average time to hatching
    24 hours
  • Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
    1 years

Females invest in their offspring by producing and yolking eggs; both sexes expend energy in reproduction, but there is no parental care after oviposition. ("Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur) 5 year review summary and evaluation", 2016; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017)

  • Parental Investment
  • pre-fertilization
    • provisioning

Lifespan/Longevity

The scarcity of these toads, combined with their fossorial habits, has resulted in limited life history data in the wild. Peltophryne lemur reportedly has a lifespan of about 10 years in captivity. ("Puerto Rican crested toad", 2017a; Lentini, 2007; Miller, 1985; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017)

  • Range lifespan
    Status: captivity
    10 (high) years

Behavior

Puerto Rican crested toads are semi-fossorial. They are able to climb up vertical rocks to openings 45 cm up in the karst limestone. The openings are about 1.5 to 4.5 cm in width and 2.0 to 4.5 cm in height. They use the same cavities multiple times and use the tops of their heads as a way to block the openings. They also shelter in old bird and tarantula holes in the ground and sometimes in dead logs. They are nocturnal and retreat to these cavities in the daytime; in the dry season, they are dormant and aestivate. Largely solitary, the breeding season is the only time Puerto Rican crested toads gather in groups. Finding Puerto Rican crested toads is a challenge when they are not reproducing. ("Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur) 5 year review summary and evaluation", 2016; "Puerto Rican crested toad", 2017a; Lentini, 2007; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017)

Home Range

The night after reproduction Puerto Rican crested toads can cover as much as 60 m as they return to their normal habitats, and they can move as much as 2 km within 20 days. Once in their usual range, they greatly decrease how far they travel to about 6 m each night. ("Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur) 5 year review summary and evaluation", 2016; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017)

Communication and Perception

Males call to attract the females to shallow temporary ponds during the breeding season. Thus they presumably have a good sense of hearing. They also seem to have reasonably good vision, and undoubtedly good tactile senses, but it is unknown how important each sense is in their breeding activities. ("Puerto Rican crested toad", 2015; "Puerto Rican crested toad", 2017a; Miller, 1985; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017)

Food Habits

Puerto Rican crested toads, similar to other toad species, consume a variety of insects and other small invertebrates of the leaf litter, including ants, beetles, spiders, millipedes, etc. They are fed small insects in captive breeding programs. Tadpoles eat vegetation, such as algae, and have been seen to scavenge dead tadpoles and the carcasses of anoles, scorpions, and millipedes. (Lentini, 2007; Miller, 1985; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017)

  • Animal Foods
  • carrion
  • insects
  • terrestrial non-insect arthropods

Predation

Juveniles are eaten by marine or cane toads (Rhinella marina). Feral dogs, cats, mongoose, anoles, Puerto Rican ground lizards, crabs, and herons are other potential predators. ("Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur) 5 year review summary and evaluation", 2016; "Puerto Rican crested toad", 2017a; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017; "Puerto Rican crested toad", 2017b)

  • Anti-predator Adaptations
  • cryptic

Ecosystem Roles

Puerto Rican crested toads are both predators and prey. As adults, these toads eat insects. Tadpoles, while largely herbivorous, may scavenge carcasses of different animals. These toads are also eaten by different predators, both in water (as larvae) and on land (after metamorphosis). They undoubtedly serve as hosts for various parasitic animals, but those have not been reported in the literature. ("Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur) 5 year review summary and evaluation", 2016; "Puerto Rican crested toad", 2017a; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017)

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

Peltophryne lemur is the only species of toad found in Puerto Rico. It undoubtedly consumes some insects that would be considered pests by humans, but has never been common enough (at least historically) to have significant economic impact. ("Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur) 5 year review summary and evaluation", 2016; "Puerto Rican crested toad", 2017a; Miller, 1985; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017)

  • Positive Impacts
  • ecotourism
  • research and education
  • controls pest population

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

Peltophyrne lemur does not have any direct negative impacts on human health or agriculture. Puerto Rican crested toads are a protected species with associated active conservation programs and could hypothetically interfere with construction and development schemes. ("Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur) 5 year review summary and evaluation", 2016; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017)

Conservation Status

Peltophryne lemur is listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN and Threatened by the USFWS. Numbers have decreased due to habitat loss and introduced species such as marine ("cane") toads (Rhinella marina), which compete for places to lay eggs, food, and shelter, and which eat juvenile Puerto Rican crested toads. Temporary ponds needed for breeding are drained for agriculture and development and mosquito management. One instance of proposed draining of a pond to allow people to get to a beach more easily was halted once the population was discovered again in 1984. Natural disasters such as hurricanes, tidal waves, floods, long periods of drought, increases in salinity, and rising sea levels, have the potential to eliminate the Guánica population or significantly decrease its numbers. Breeding in zoos has been done, with tadpoles reintroduced into the natural habitat. Conservation also involves education, and habitat, restoration and protection, particularly breeding ponds. Also important is control of predatory and competing species, assessing potential areas for introduction, and researching basic biology of the toad. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) created a recovery plan in 1992, and populations have grown between 1992 and the present. The Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) Species Survival Plan (SSP), the first amphibian SSP, began in 1984. AZA Zoos (Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit, Fort Worth, Jacksonville, Nashville, Potter Park, San Antonio, Sedgwick Country, and Toronto Zoos) with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), the Puerto Rican Department of Natural Resources (PRDNER), Puerto Rico National Park Company, Para La Naturaleza (PLN), the University of Puerto Rico Centers for Applied Tropical Ecology and Conservation, Ciudadanos del Karso, and Iniciativa Herpetologica, Inc. have worked to breed Puerto Rican Crested Toads in captivity and release the tadpoles back to the wild. As of 2016, the reintroduction of 312,000 tadpoles and 1,546 toadlets was accomplished. There was an introduction to a location in the Guánica Commonwealth Forest, Manglillo Grande, with natural reproduction observed. There were also reintroductions in five additional locations. In 2013, a Formal Memorandum of Understanding was signed by the AZA, FWS, and PRDNER to increase cooperation and work for the conservation of the species. ("Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur) 5 year review summary and evaluation", 2016; "Puerto Rican crested toad", 2017a; Angulo, 2010; Joglar, et al., 2007; Lentini, 2007; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017; "Puerto Rican crested toad", 2017b)

Other Comments

George Latimer discovered Peltophyrne lemur and scientists thought the species was extinct during the period from 1932 to 1966. The common name was sapo concho, but this is also used for Rhinella marina. The recovery working group has altered the name to sapo concho puertorriqueño for Peltophryne lemur and sapo común for Rhinella marina. ("Highlights and accomplishments: amphibian conservation", 2013; "Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur) 5 year review summary and evaluation", 2016; Angulo, 2010; "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program", 2017)

Contributors

Julie Javorka (author), Michigan State University, James Harding (editor), Michigan State University, Tanya Dewey (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.

Glossary

Neotropical

living in the southern part of the New World. In other words, Central and South America.

World Map

acoustic

uses sound to communicate

bilateral symmetry

having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.

carnivore

an animal that mainly eats meat

carrion

flesh of dead animals.

cryptic

having markings, coloration, shapes, or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment; being difficult to see or otherwise detect.

ecotourism

humans benefit economically by promoting tourism that focuses on the appreciation of natural areas or animals. Ecotourism implies that there are existing programs that profit from the appreciation of natural areas or animals.

ectothermic

animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature

external fertilization

fertilization takes place outside the female's body

fertilization

union of egg and spermatozoan

folivore

an animal that mainly eats leaves.

forest

forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.

fossorial

Referring to a burrowing life-style or behavior, specialized for digging or burrowing.

herbivore

An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.

heterothermic

having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature.

insectivore

An animal that eats mainly insects or spiders.

island endemic

animals that live only on an island or set of islands.

metamorphosis

A large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows. In insects, "incomplete metamorphosis" is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form, and "complete metamorphosis" is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms. Butterflies have complete metamorphosis, grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis.

migratory

makes seasonal movements between breeding and wintering grounds

motile

having the capacity to move from one place to another.

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

nocturnal

active during the night

oviparous

reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.

phytoplankton

photosynthetic or plant constituent of plankton; mainly unicellular algae. (Compare to zooplankton.)

saltatorial

specialized for leaping or bounding locomotion; jumps or hops.

scavenger

an animal that mainly eats dead animals

scrub forest

scrub forests develop in areas that experience dry seasons.

seasonal breeding

breeding is confined to a particular season

sexual

reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female

solitary

lives alone

tactile

uses touch to communicate

temperate

that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).

terrestrial

Living on the ground.

threatened

The term is used in the 1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals to refer collectively to species categorized as Endangered (E), Vulnerable (V), Rare (R), Indeterminate (I), or Insufficiently Known (K) and in the 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals to refer collectively to species categorized as Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), or Vulnerable (VU).

visual

uses sight to communicate

References

2013. "Highlights and accomplishments: amphibian conservation" (On-line pdf). Association of Zoos and Aquariums. Accessed September 02, 2017 at https://www.aza.org/assets/2332/amphibianreport2013.pdf.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur) 5 year review summary and evaluation. Boquerón, Puerto Rico: Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office. 2016. Accessed November 14, 2017 at https://www.fws.gov/southeast/pdf/five-year-reviews/puerto-rican-crested-toad.pdf.

Puerto Rican Crested Toad Recovery Program. 2017. "Puerto Rican crested toad recovery program" (On-line). Association of Zoos and Aquariums Puerto Rican Crested Toad SSP. Accessed September 02, 2017 at http://crestedtoadssp.org/.

2015. "Puerto Rican crested toad" (On-line). Elmwood Park Zoo. Accessed November 12, 2017 at http://www.elmwoodparkzoo.org/animal-puerto-rican-crested-toad2.php.

2017. "Puerto Rican crested toad" (On-line). Potter Park Zoo. Accessed November 12, 2017 at https://potterparkzoo.org/animals/puerto-rican-crested-toad/.

Saint Louis Zoo. 2017. "Puerto Rican crested toad" (On-line). Saint Louis Zoo. Accessed September 02, 2017 at https://www.stlzoo.org/animals/abouttheanimals/amphibians/frogsandtoads/puertoricancrestedtoad.

Angulo, A. 2010. "Peltophryne lemur" (On-line). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Accessed November 12, 2017 at http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/54345/0.

Joglar, R., A. Alvarez, T. Aide, D. Barber, P. Burrowes, M. Garcia, A. Leon-Cardona, A. Longo, N. Perez-Buitrago, A. Puente, N. Rios-Lopez, P. Tolson. 2007. Conserving the Puerto Rican herpetofauna. Applied Herpetology, 4: 327-345. Accessed December 14, 2017 at https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/8408143/joglar%20et%20al%202007.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1513282798&Signature=0D04DfNYlpNZ7L7b0shCbfEQVyc%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DConserving_the_Puerto_Rican_herpetofauna.pdf.

Lentini, A. 2007. "Husbandry manual: Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltophryne lemur)" (On-line pdf). Amphibian Ark. Accessed September 02, 2017 at http://www.amphibianark.org/pdf/Husbandry/Puerto%20Rican%20Crested%20Toad%20%28Peltophryne%20lemur%29%20Husbandry%20Manual.pdf.

Miller, T. 1985. Husbandry and breeding of Puerto Rican toad (Peltophryne lemur) with comments on its natural history. Zoo Biology, 4: 281-286.

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