Geographic Range
Polyodon spathula
(American paddlefish) is currently found in 22 states that are part of the Mississippi
River drainage (Mims, 2001). American paddlefish distribution is now restricted to
this system of large, slow-moving rivers. In the past,
P. spathula
was located in 4 more states in this drainage, the Great Lakes, and Canada (Graham,
1997). The many dams that have been added throughout the Mississippi River drainage
have limited the ranges of many populations of these fish (Wills, 1993). Due to these
unnatural blockages, migratory breeding behavior has been disrupted, and many areas
previously sustaining paddlefish must be annually stocked by local conservation agencies
(Graham, 1997).
American paddlefish have also been introduced into the lower Danube River, in the
Balkans region of Europe, as sportfish.
- Biogeographic Regions
- nearctic
- palearctic
Habitat
American paddlefish are mainly freshwater fish but can survive in brackish water (Billard,
2001). They generally reside in large rivers with deep water (greater than 6 meters)
and slow moving currents (less than 5 cm/s) (Zigler, 2003; Southall, 1984). Turbid
(muddy) water is preferred by
P. spathula
. During migratory breeding events,
P. spathula
needs access to areas with sand or gravel bars (Wills, 1993).
- Habitat Regions
- temperate
- freshwater
- Aquatic Biomes
- lakes and ponds
- rivers and streams
- brackish water
Physical Description
American paddlefish are clearly distinguishable from other North American fish by
the presence of an extended snout, or rostrum. This rostrum is covered with electroreceptors
to locate zooplankton and facilitate migratory behavior. American paddlefish are
large, reaching maximum lengths of up to 2.5 meters and weighing from 18 to 70 kg.
Males are generally larger than females (Wilkens, 2002). Large gill rakers are present
in these fishes for zooplankton consumption from turbid waters (Russell, 2002). They
also have a cartilaginous skeleton, heterocercal tail, and lack scales (Wills, 1993).
- Other Physical Features
- ectothermic
- heterothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- male larger
Development
After fertilization, developing American paddlefish may be seen through their transparent
roe, or eggs. In 24 hours the notochord develops, and a heartbeat is apparent by
day four. By the fifth day, young
P. spathula
hatch and begin their larval stage of life. They are then carried somewhere downstream
by slow moving river currents (Wills, 1993). Once gill rakers fully form, juvenile
paddlefish can effectively filter feed (Mims, 2001). Female American paddlefish are
not fully mature until they reach 12 to 14 years of age and males are mature at ages
of 6 to 7 years (Wills, 1993).
- Development - Life Cycle
- metamorphosis
- indeterminate growth
Reproduction
Paddlefish are broadcast spawners whereby multiple males swim near and release milt
onto the eggs liberated by a female. The eggs are very sticky and thus adhere to
a substrate such as gravel or sand (Wills, 1993). A spawning migration occurs within
the Mississippi River system making paddlefish a
potamodromous
species. During the peak of the breeding season in the spring, large shoals of male
and female fish form in specific breeding areas to spawn (Billard, 2001).
- Mating System
- polygynandrous (promiscuous)
Female American paddlefish are very particular about when they will release their
eggs for reproduction. It has been noted that spawning generally occurs only every
2 to 3 years based upon certain environmental stimuli. At a specific spring photoperiod,
there must be a rise in the water level of the river accompanied by a water temperature
of approximately 55 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit (Wills, 1993).
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- seasonal breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- fertilization
- broadcast (group) spawning
- oviparous
Beyond the production of roe and milt, female and male American paddlefish provide
nothing in the form of parental investment. The yolk sack of larval padlefish is
consumed after hatching which may be considered a form of pre-fertilization provisioning
by the female (Wills, 1993). These fishes are an excellent example of a species with
a life history strategy designed to maximize success by producing many more eggs than
will survive, rather than providing parental care.
- Parental Investment
- no parental involvement
-
pre-fertilization
- provisioning
Lifespan/Longevity
American paddlefish are relatively long-lived, they may live up to 55 years. The
average lifespan as estimated in dentary studies seems to be about 20 to 30 years
(Wills, 1993).
Behavior
Relatively little is known of
P. spathula
behavior towards conspecifics or members of different species. More is known about
American paddlefishes physiological behavior in terms of feeding and respiration.
American paddlefish can often be seen swimming around with their very large mouths
wide open. This is a behavior that allows the fish to filter feed and ventilate their
gills (ram ventilation) at the same time (Burggren, 2003). It is also known that
American paddlefish swim in a fairly primitive manner involving undulation of nearly
the entire body (Wills, 1993).
- Key Behaviors
- natatorial
- motile
- migratory
Home Range
Polyodon spathula
ranging behavior has been inferred from radio tagging experiments. These show that
paddlefish generally restrict their movement to a certain home range, but that they
frequently stray from this area, especially during spring breeding seasons (Zigler,
2003; Jennings, 1993). During the breeding season, American paddlefish migrate upstream
to gravel or sand bars, but they generally never leave the freshwater of the Mississippi
River basin (Wills, 1993)
Communication and Perception
The large rostrum (paddle) of
P. spathula
is covered with electroreceptors (Russell, 2002). This paddle is essentially a highly
sensitive antenna used to gather information about the surrounding environment through
changing electrical fields. This electric sense is used by American paddlefish to
locate prey and successfully migrate during spawning seasons (Wilkins, 2002). This
system is so sensitive that juveniles can locate single zooplankton from up to 9 cm
away by sensing the miniscule electrical pulses given off by the animal’s muscle contractions
(Wilkins, 2002; Wills, 1993). It is unclear how
P. spathula
individuals communicate during spawning, but they may use a combination of visual
and tactile cues.
Food Habits
Polyodon spathula
is a faunivore specialized for filter feeding. As described above, American paddlefish
use electroreceptors to locate zooplankton in turbid water (Wilkins, 2002). Examples
of animals in the
P. spathula
diet are copepods, cladocerans such
Daphnia pulex
, and ephemeropteran nymphs (Hoxmeier, 1997).
Polyodon spathula
possesses huge gill rakers along with jaws that are anatomically independent from
the neurocranium (Carroll, 2003). These features allow for a larger surface area
to be filtered by American paddlefish.
- Primary Diet
- planktivore
- Animal Foods
- insects
- aquatic crustaceans
- zooplankton
- Foraging Behavior
- filter-feeding
Predation
It is speculated that the large size and extended life span of
P. spathula
is an adaptation to avoid predation. Producing high concentrations of paddlefish
offspring in a single season may be a predator satiating mechanism used to maximize
the chances of survival for a smaller, but significant proportion of
P. spathula
. When American paddlefish are in their larval stage they are easy prey for many
different birds and fishes, but at maturity their only real predators are humans (Wills,
1993).
Ecosystem Roles
American paddlefish are predators of zooplankton and prey to other fishes, birds,
and humans. Also, silver lampreys have been found to use American paddlefish as hosts
(Cochran, 2004). Beyond these relationships, relatively little is known of the role
of American paddlefish in their ecosystem.
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Perhaps to the benefit of humans and the detriment of American paddlefish, these fish
are highly valuable in many ways. Due to their large size and succulent flesh,
P. spathula
has long been utilized as a source of meat. Also, being closely related to sturgeons
(family Acipenseridae), American paddlefish produce highly coveted roe, or caviar.
In the 1980’s a trade embargo of Iranian imports severely limited the amount of caviar
that was imported to the United States from the Caspian Sea. As the demand for caviar
increased, American paddlefish suffered heavy population losses as the illegal acquisition
of their roe became a highly profitable endeavor (Wills, 1993).
Beyond
P. spathula
being a source of caviar, their skin is thick, scaleless, strong, and tans well,
making it a marketable product. There is also a growing interest in the immune system
of American paddlefish. Despite their extremely simple immune system, they rarely,
if ever, get cancer due to their cartilaginous skeleton. Cartilage prohibits blood
flow to cancerous cells that is necessary for their growth, thereby stopping the spread
of cancer. Therefore, American paddlefish have been a useful and promising test subject
in the field of aquatic pharmacology (Wills, 1993).
Since American paddlefish are extremely beneficial to humans in many ways, they are
currently being farm raised in the U.S. (Mims, 1999), and as far away as Russia, Romania,
and Moldavia (Vedrasco, 2001). Most of the fish at these farms are produced for their
valuable meat and caviar (Vedrasco, 2001).
- Positive Impacts
- food
- body parts are source of valuable material
- research and education
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
There are no known adverse affects of P. spathula on humans.
Conservation Status
Polyodon spathula
populations are most threatened by dams throughout the Mississippi River basin.
These cause a separation of American paddlefish populations which limits gene flow
and thus genetic variability. Dams also prevent the natural migratory spawning behavior
of American paddlefish (Wills, 1993). Due to their highly valuable meat and roe,
P. spathula
has been over-harvested in the past. This has lead to more regulations on paddlefish
harvesting, and many states now actively stock areas of river with American paddlefish
(Graham, 1997). This species is presumed to be extirpated from the state of Michigan.
Other Comments
Polyodon spathula
was first described by J. Walbaum in 1792 (Walbaum, 1792).
Additional Links
Contributors
Tanya Dewey (editor), Animal Diversity Web.
John Jerome (author), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, William Fink (editor, instructor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.
- Nearctic
-
living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Palearctic
-
living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.
- introduced
-
referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.
- temperate
-
that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).
- freshwater
-
mainly lives in water that is not salty.
- brackish water
-
areas with salty water, usually in coastal marshes and estuaries.
- ectothermic
-
animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature
- heterothermic
-
having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- metamorphosis
-
A large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows. In insects, "incomplete metamorphosis" is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form, and "complete metamorphosis" is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms. Butterflies have complete metamorphosis, grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis.
- indeterminate growth
-
Animals with indeterminate growth continue to grow throughout their lives.
- polygynandrous
-
the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males, each of which also pairs with several different females.
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- seasonal breeding
-
breeding is confined to a particular season
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- fertilization
-
union of egg and spermatozoan
- external fertilization
-
fertilization takes place outside the female's body
- oviparous
-
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.
- natatorial
-
specialized for swimming
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- migratory
-
makes seasonal movements between breeding and wintering grounds
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- electric
-
uses electric signals to communicate
- zooplankton
-
animal constituent of plankton; mainly small crustaceans and fish larvae. (Compare to phytoplankton.)
- filter-feeding
-
a method of feeding where small food particles are filtered from the surrounding water by various mechanisms. Used mainly by aquatic invertebrates, especially plankton, but also by baleen whales.
- food
-
A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.
- planktivore
-
an animal that mainly eats plankton
References
Billard, R., G. Lecointre. 2001. Biology and conservation of sturgeon and paddlefish. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries , 10/4: 355-392.
Burggren, W., W. Bemis. 1992. Metabolism and ram gill ventilation in juvenile paddlefish, Polyodon spathula (Chondrostei, Polyodontidae). Physiological Zoology , 65/3: 515-539.
Carroll, A., P. Wainwright. 2003. Functional morphology of prey capture in the sturgeon, Scaphirhynchus albus . Journal of Morphology , 256/3: 270-284.
Cochran, P., J. Lyons. 2004. Field and laboratory observations on the ecology and behavior of the silver lamprey ( Ichthyomyzon unicuspis ) in Wisconsin. Journal of Freshwater Ecology , 19/2: 245-253.
Graham, K. 1997. Contemporary status of the North American paddlefish, Polyodon Spathula . Environmental Biology of Fishes , 48: 279-289.
Hoxmeier, R., D. DeVries. 1997. Habitat use, diet, and population structure of adult and juvenile paddlefish in the lower Alabama River. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society , 126/2: 288-301.
Jennings, C., D. Wilson. 1993. Spawning activity of paddlefish ( Polyodon spathula ) in the lower Black River, Wisconsin. Journal of Freshwater Ecology , 8/3: 261-262.
Mims, S., L. Shelton. 1999. Monosex culture of paddlefish and shovelnose sturgeon. Proc. Symp. on Harvest, Trade and Conservation of N.A. Paddlefish and sturgeon: 42-51.
Mims, S. 2001. Aquaculture of paddlefish in the United States. Aquatic Living Resources , 14/6: 391-398.
Russell, D., A. Neiman. 2002. Noise-induced afferent bursting in electroreceptors of paddlefish. Society for Neuroscience Abstract Viewer & Itinerary Planner: 86-88.
Russell, D., L. Wilkin, F. Moss. 1999. Use of behaviourial stochastic resonance by paddlefish for feeding. Nature , 402: 291-293.
Southall, P., W. Hubert. 1984. Habitat use by adult paddlefish in the upper Mississippi River. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society , 113/2: 125-131.
Vassilev, M. 2006. Lower Danube- The Last Refuge for Surviving of Sturgeon Fishes in the Black Sea Region. BALWOIS : Water Observation and Information System for Balkan Countries, 1: 1-10. Accessed June 21, 2006 at http://balwois.mpl.ird.fr/balwois/administration/full_paper/ffp-858.pdf. .
Vedrasco, A., V. Lobchenko, R. Billard. 2001. Introduction of the paddlefish Polyodon spathula in Europe. Aquatic Living Resources , 14/6: 383-390.
Walbaum, J. 1792. Petri Artedi renovati. Part 3. Petri Artedi sueci genera Piscium in quibus systema totum ichthyologiae proponitur cum classibus, ordinibus, generum characteribus, specierum diffentiis, observationibus plumiris. Redactis Speciebus 2. Ichthyologiae , III: 723.
Wilkens, L., M. Hoffman, W. Wojtenek. 2002. The electric sense of the paddlefish: a passive system for the detection and capture of zooplankton prey. Journal of Physiology , 96/5-6: 363-377.
Wills, B. 1993. The Paddlefish: An American Treasure . Fort Worth, TX: Earthwave Productions Inc..
Zigler, S., M. Dewey, B. Knights. 2003. Movement and habitat use by radio-tagged paddlefish in the upper Mississippi River and tributaries. North American Journal of Fisheries Management , 23/1: 189-205.