Geographic Range
African grey parrots (
Psittacus erithacus
) span the forest belt of central and West Africa including the oceanic island of
PrÃncipe (Gulf of Guinea). In Western Africa, they are found in coastal countries
such as Sierra Leone, Ghana, and the Ivory Coast. The two known subspecies of African
Grey Parrots have varying ranges.
Psittacus erithacus erithicus
inhabits a range extending from Kenya to the eastern border of the Ivory Coast and
including the insular populations.
Psittacus erithacus timneh
has a range from the eastern border of Ivory Coast to Guinea-Bissau.
Habitat
The habitat of African grey parrots is usually moist lowland forests, although they
are found up to 2,200 m altitude in the eastern parts of the range. They are commonly
observed at forest edges, clearings, gallery forests, mangroves, wooded savannahs,
cultivated areas, and gardens. African grey parrots often visit open land adjacent
to woodlands, they roost in trees over water and may prefer roosting on islands in
rivers. These parrots make their nests in tree holes, sometimes choosing locations
abandoned by birds like woodpeckers. In West Africa, the species makes seasonal movements
out of the driest parts of the range in the dry season.
- Habitat Regions
- tropical
- terrestrial
- Terrestrial Biomes
- savanna or grassland
- forest
- scrub forest
- Other Habitat Features
- suburban
- agricultural
- riparian
Physical Description
The plumage of
Psittacus erithacus
is various shades of grey with very distinctive red tail feathers. African grey parrots
typically measure 33 cm from head to tail and weigh up to 407g. They have an average
wingspan of 46-52 cm.
Psittacus e. erithacus> is referred to as the nominate race and is light grey. Individuals
of this subspecies have distinct red tails and solid black beaks. These birds have
bare white face patches and sometimes bright, usually pale, silvery yellow eyes. Many
of the grey contour feathers are edged with white. This gives them a smooth, lacy
appearance. They may be somewhat sexually dimorphic.
Psittacus e. timneh
individuals are smaller and darker with a maroon, brownish wash over the red tail.
They have black-tipped, dark pinkish maxilla and solid black mandibles. Their iris
has more of a silver appearance rather than yellow
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- homoiothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- sexes colored or patterned differently
Reproduction
African grey parrots are very social birds. Breeding occurs in loose colonies with
each pair occupying its own tree. Individuals select mates carefully and have a lifelong
monogamous bond that begins at sexually maturity, at three to five years of age. Few
details are known about courtship in the wild, but display flights around nest holes
have been observed and recorded. Males feed mates (courtship feeding) and both sing
soft monotonous notes. At this time the female will sleep in the nest cavity while
the male guards it. In captivity, males feed females after copulation events and both
sexes participate in a mating dance in which they droop their wings.
- Mating System
- monogamous
The breeding season varies by locality, but appears to coincide with the dry season.
African grey parrots breed once to twice a year. Females lay three to five roundish
eggs, one each at intervals of two to five days. Females incubate the eggs while being
fed entirely by the male. Incubation takes approximately thirty days and the young
emerge from the nest at twelve weeks old.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- seasonal breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- oviparous
After the young emerge from the nest, both parents feed, raise, and protect them.
Both parents care for their clutch of young until they reach independence.
- Parental Investment
- altricial
-
pre-fertilization
- provisioning
-
protecting
- female
-
pre-hatching/birth
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- male
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-weaning/fledging
-
provisioning
- male
- female
-
protecting
- male
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-independence
-
provisioning
- male
- female
-
protecting
- male
- female
-
provisioning
- extended period of juvenile learning
Lifespan/Longevity
In captive and wild parrots the average lifespan is between 40 and 50 years. In captivity,
African grey parrots have a mean lifespan of 45 years, but they can live up to 60
years. In the wild, the average lifespan is 22.7 years (n=120).
Behavior
Wild African grey parrots are very shy and rarely allow humans to approach them. They
are highly social and nest in large groups, although family groups occupy their own
nesting tree. They are often observed roosting in large, noisy flocks calling loudly
during mornings and evenings and in flight. These flocks are composed of only African
grey parrots, unlike other parrots that are often found in mixed flocks. During the
day, they break into smaller flocks and fly long distances to forage. They often roost
in trees over water and are said to prefer roosting on islands in rivers. Young birds
stay with their family groups for a long period of time, up to several years. They
socialize with others of their age in nursery trees, but remain in their family group
within the larger flock. Young African grey parrots are cared for by older birds until
they are educated enough and old enough to become independent flock members. Young
exhibit appeasement behaviors towards older members. As they mature, birds become
more aggressive with conspecifics. African grey parrots in the wild must learn a complex
set of skills. They need to learn how to separate desirable food plants from toxic
plants, how to defend territory, how to recognize and avoid predators, how to find
safe water, and how to rejoin their families when separated. Also, they must learn
how to develop role-appropriate behaviors such as competing and defending nest sites
and raising offspring. Competition for nest holes during mating season makes the species
extremely aggressive. Because African grey parrots are partial ground feeders, there
is a series of behavioral events that occur before landing and safe consumption takes
place. Groups of parrots gather at a barren tree until it is completely filled with
hundreds of birds that partake in preening, climbing, vocalizing, and socializing.
Eventually the birds make their way down to the ground in waves with the entire group
never being on the ground at the same time. Once on the ground, they are extremely
vigilant, reacting to any movement and/or sound.
Studies have found that African grey parrots have complex cognition and are considered
one of the most intelligent species of animal. They test and form ideas about the
world. In a study preformed by Irene Pepperberg (2007), African grey parrots were
tested on insightful behavior and imitative competence. The results showed that the
two parrots with limited vocabulary immediately acted out the correct physical, insightful
task. The parrots that had received training in referential English speech attempted
instead to manipulate their trainer. They engaged in deliberate communication as a
problem-solving strategy, which is an advanced stage of development, even for human
infants. The most famous African Grey Parrot, Alex, exhibited cognitive capacities
comparable to those of marine mammals, apes, and 4 to 6 year old children. Some of
Alex’s accomplishments included the ability to label 50 different objects, 7 colors,
5 shapes and quantities up to and including six. He would combine these labels to
identify, request, refuse, categorize, and quantify about 100 different objects. Alex
also had functional use of phases and had a concept of category. African Grey Parrots
have behavior patterns that match some non-human primates and that parallel combinatory
development. In an experiment performed by Galef (2004), African grey parrots were
observed to copy a variety of actions involving six different body parts and to associate
each action with its appropriate label. This is a form of social-learning and imitation.
- Key Behaviors
- arboreal
- scansorial
- flies
- glides
- diurnal
- crepuscular
- motile
- migratory
- territorial
- social
- colonial
Communication and Perception
Wild African grey parrot flocks follow a daily pattern of vocalizations. Usually the
flock is quiet from sunset until the next dawn. At day break, the flock begins to
vocalize before setting out to forage at different locations throughout the day. At
dusk, upon return to the roosting site, there is a period of vocalization. There
are a variety of different types of calls and vocalizations, including alarm calls,
contact calls, food begging calls, and agonistic calls. Contact calls are of particular
importance because they serve to identify where other members of the flock are and
help promote flock cohesion. Alarm calls indicate varying levels of distress, these
calls are particularly loud and of a frequency that carries well in order to warn
fellow flock members. Young learn these vocalizations from parents and flock mates,
so pet parrots will not learn appropriate vocalizations, but will show similar patterns
and use of calls. Bottoni et al. (2003) found that African grey parrots demonstrated
complex cognitive competence in understanding both the similarities and dissimilarities
among musical note frequencies and were able to master the musical code. It was determined
that African grey parrots must isolate a sound from background noise, imitate it,
categorize the acoustic stimulus, encode it into long term memory, and monitor the
output sound to match it with the internal template. The famous African grey parrot,
Alex, achieved a rudimentary form of communication, including contextual and conceptual
use of human speech. That research showed that African grey parrots are capable of
far more than simply mimicing human speech.
Food Habits
African grey parrots are herbivores. In the wild, they feed primarily on nuts and
fruits, supplemented by leafy matter, fruits, insects, bark, and flowers. African
grey parrots eat mostly common fruits, such as oil-palm (
Elaeis guinensis
).
- Animal Foods
- insects
- Plant Foods
- leaves
- seeds, grains, and nuts
- fruit
- flowers
Predation
Psittacus erithacus
are harassed and preyed on by palm-nut vultures (
Gypohierax angolensis
). Several species of hawks also prey on fledglings and adults. Monkeys prey on eggs
and young in nests. When feeding on the ground, African grey parrots are vulnerable
to terrestrial predators.
Ecosystem Roles
African grey parrots may disperse the seeds of fruits they eat. They act as definitive
hosts to both tapeworms and blood parasites.
- tapeworms ( Cestoda )
- blood parasites
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
African grey parrots are the second most heavily harvested parrot in the world. The
trade between 1980 and 1995 documented an excess of 500,000 birds caught in the wild.
From 1994 to 2003, just fewer than 360,000 wild caught parrots were reportedly exported
from their native range. They are one of the most popular avian pets in Europe, the
United States, and the Middle East. In Principe, trappers heavily harvest African
grey parrots for the international pet trade.
- Positive Impacts
- pet trade
- ecotourism
- research and education
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
There are no known adverse affects of Psittacus erithacus on humans.
Conservation Status
Psittacus erithacus
is considered to be a near threatened species because of a recent analysis suggesting
that up to 21% of the global population may be harvested annually. The quota for African
grey parrots in the Democratic Republic of the Congo is 5000, 4000 in Congo, and 250
in Gabon. Unfortunately, there is no law prohibiting capture and trade of parrots.
These birds are impacted by habitat destruction, indiscriminate use of pesticides,
and hunting by local inhabitants. Trapping for the wild bird trade is a major cause
of decline in wild African grey parrots populations.
Other Comments
In captivity, African grey parrots often suffer medical problems such as obesity,
hypovitaminosis A, hypocalcemia, amino acid imbalance, or micromineral deficiencies.
Problems are often associated with poor diets composed of seeds and nuts with supplemented
fruits. These food sources contain high levels of carbohydrates. African grey parrots
can also have calcium deficiencies which can lead to seizures. They can suffer from
respiratory ailments caused by fungal diseases, bacterial infections/pneumonia, and
nutritional deficiencies. Other health issues observed are; hyperkeratotic swellings,
malignant tumors, tapeworm and blood parasites. They are also susceptible to Psittacine
Beak and feather Disease (PBFD).
In captivity, African grey parrots are prone to certain behavioral problems. For
example, feather picking in response to social stress. Territory issues can also
arise and are more common in males than females.
Captive African grey parrots thrive on a diet of seeds, grain, pellets, and fruits
and vegetables. It is suggested that pet owners supplement the diet with calcium in
the form of dark leafy greens, calcium-rich vegetables, fruits, oatmeal, almonds,
walnuts, hazelnuts, and sesame seeds. Flax seed and sunflower seed are also strongly
recommended. Recent studies have suggested that pelleted diets are considered nutritionally
superior to homemade diets and seed mixtures and may reduce the risk of abnormal grit
consumption.
Additional Links
Contributors
Tanya Dewey (editor), Animal Diversity Web.
Rachel Holman (author), Northern Michigan University, Alec R. Lindsay (editor, instructor), Northern Michigan University.
- Ethiopian
-
living in sub-Saharan Africa (south of 30 degrees north) and Madagascar.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- tropical
-
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.
- terrestrial
-
Living on the ground.
- tropical savanna and grassland
-
A terrestrial biome. Savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy. Extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical Africa and South America, and in Australia.
- savanna
-
A grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees, a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest. See also Tropical savanna and grassland biome.
- temperate grassland
-
A terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes (>23.5° N or S latitude). Vegetation is made up mostly of grasses, the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available. Fire and grazing are important in the long-term maintenance of grasslands.
- forest
-
forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.
- scrub forest
-
scrub forests develop in areas that experience dry seasons.
- suburban
-
living in residential areas on the outskirts of large cities or towns.
- agricultural
-
living in landscapes dominated by human agriculture.
- riparian
-
Referring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody (usually, but not always, a river or stream).
- endothermic
-
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- monogamous
-
Having one mate at a time.
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- seasonal breeding
-
breeding is confined to a particular season
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- oviparous
-
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.
- altricial
-
young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth/hatching. In birds, naked and helpless after hatching.
- arboreal
-
Referring to an animal that lives in trees; tree-climbing.
- diurnal
-
- active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
- crepuscular
-
active at dawn and dusk
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- migratory
-
makes seasonal movements between breeding and wintering grounds
- territorial
-
defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement
- social
-
associates with others of its species; forms social groups.
- colonial
-
used loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies. More specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits (a continuous, modular society) - as in clonal organisms.
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- mimicry
-
imitates a communication signal or appearance of another kind of organism
- choruses
-
to jointly display, usually with sounds, at the same time as two or more other individuals of the same or different species
- pet trade
-
the business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets.
- ecotourism
-
humans benefit economically by promoting tourism that focuses on the appreciation of natural areas or animals. Ecotourism implies that there are existing programs that profit from the appreciation of natural areas or animals.
- herbivore
-
An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.
- frugivore
-
an animal that mainly eats fruit
- granivore
-
an animal that mainly eats seeds
- omnivore
-
an animal that mainly eats all kinds of things, including plants and animals
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
References
Athan, M., D. Deter. 2000. The African Grey Parrot Handbook . Hauppauge, NY: Barron's Educational Series. Accessed March 20, 2008 at http://books.google.com/books?id=qqrxmrS2bXQC .
Athan, M. 1999. Barron's Guide to Companion Parrot Behavior . New York, New York: Barron's Educational Series.
Bottoni, L., R. Massa, D. Boero. 2003. The Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus) as a Musician: an Experiment With the Temperate Scale. Ethology Ecology and Evolution , 15: 133-141.
Fahlman, A. 2002. "African Drey Parrot Conservation: a Feasibility evaluation of Developing a Local Conservation Program in Pricipe" (On-line pdf). Accessed April 10, 2008 at http://www.env-impact.geo.uu.se/84Fahlman.pdf .
Faye, S. 2006. "African Greys aka Grey Parrots, General Info on the African Grey" (On-line). AvianWeb:Pet Bird Resources. Accessed April 10, 2008 at http://www.avianweb.com/aricangreys.htm .
Galef, B. 2004. Social Learning and Imitation. Biology of Behavior , 4: 261-269.
Hallander, J. 2001. "Flock Behavior: How it Affects our Companion Parrots" (On-line). The Grey Play Roundtable, African Grey Info. Accessed April 10, 2008 at africangreys.com/behavior/flocks.htm .
Juste, J. 1995. Trade in the Gray Parrot (Psittacus erithacus) on the Island of Principe (SAO TOME and Principe, Central Africa): Initial Assessment of the Activity on Its Impact. Biological Conservation , 76: 101-104.
Luescher, A. 2006. Manual of Parrot Behavior . New York, New York: Blackwell Publishing.
Melo, M., C. O'Ryan. 2007. Genetic differentiation between Principe Island and mainland populations of the grey parrot ( Psittacus erithacus ), and implications for conservation. Molecular Ecology , 16: 1673-1685.
Pepperberg, I. 2000. The Alex Studies, Cognitive and Communicative Abilities of Grey Parrots.b . Boston, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Pepperberg, I. 1991. A Communicative Approach to Animal Cognition: A Study of Conceptual Abilities of an African Grey Parrot. Pp. 153-186 in Cognitive Ethology, the Minds of Other Animals, Essays in Honor of Donald R. Griffin . Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Pepperberg, I. 2007. When Training Engenders Failure to Imitate in Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus). Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Imitation in Animals and Artifacts: 0-10.
Pepperberg, I. 2006. cognitive and Communicative Abilities of Grey Parrots. Applied Animal Behavior Science , 100: 77-86.
Pepperberg, I. 2001. "Lessons from Cognitive Ethology: Animal Models for Ethological Computing" (On-line pdf). Accessed April 10, 2008 at http://www.lehigh.edu/~mhbo/cogsZwebreadings/Pepperberg23sep01.pdf .
Ryan, T. 2002. Grit Impaction in Two Neonatal African Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus). Avian Medicine and Surgery , 16: 230-233.
Wright, M. 2002. "Understanding the Wild Nature of our Dreys" (On-line). Accessed April 10, 2008 at http://www.lafeber.com/Laferber-Library/Articles/wright/wildnature.asp .
2006. "African Grey Parrots" (On-line). Accessed April 10, 2008 at Eliteparrotsclub.com/articles/species/mediumsmall/africangreyparrots.html .
2008. "CITES species database" (On-line). CITES. Accessed April 14, 2008 at http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html .
2008. "Psittacus erithacus (African Grey Parrot, Congo African Grey Parrot, Grey Parrot)" (On-line). Zipcodezoo.com. Accessed March 20, 2008 at http://zipcodezoo.com/Animals/P/Psittacus_erithacus.asp .
2008. " Psittacus erithacus , Linnaeeus, 1758" (On-line pdf). Accessed March 20, 2008 at http://www.cites.org/eng/com/AC/22/E22-10-2-Al.pdf .
2008. "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species" (On-line). Accessed April 15, 2008 at http://www.iuncredlist.org/search/details.php/47991/clss .