Geographic Range
Pteropus caniceps
is endemic to islands in Indonesia; the islands of Halmahera, Batjan, Tidore, and
Ternate. Inaccurate records of the species were reported from the Sula, Peleng, and
Sangihe Islands, and a single unreliable record was found from Sulawesi.
- Biogeographic Regions
- oriental
- australian
- Other Geographic Terms
- island endemic
Habitat
North Moluccan flying foxes are found on Indonesian islands in both primary and fairly
disturbed habitats. They are thought to roost in small groups and the hollows of trees.
- Habitat Regions
- tropical
- terrestrial
- Terrestrial Biomes
- forest
- rainforest
- Other Habitat Features
- agricultural
Physical Description
North Moluccan flying foxes, also known as Ashy-headed flying foxes, were first reported
as a probable hybrid between
Pteropus hypomelanus
and
Pteropus macklotii
, having many similar characteristics. North Moluccan flying foxes have ears longer
than the muzzle with a greyish brown head. The neck and shoulders are a bright yellow
color and the back is a yellowish grey entwined with black and brown hairs. The feet
and legs are naked and the teeth resemble those of
P. macklotii
, but the upper incisors are broader and shorter. Average measurements are a body
length of 203 mm (body and head), ear length of 25 mm, and forearm length of 135 mm.
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- homoiothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- sexes alike
Reproduction
There is no information pertaining the mating systems of North Moluccan flying foxes.
For many Australian species of
Pteropus
, both sexes of bats assemble at camps in trees for breeding in spring. After the
breeding season, females and males move from breeding sites to overwintering sites.
Little is know about the reproductive behavior of
P. caniceps
. Many species in the genus
Pteropus
are pregnant for 6 months and found to only have 1 offspring annually. Lactation
occurs at 5 to 6 months and the age of maturity for both male and female is approximately
18 months.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- viviparous
Female
Pteropus
species carry their young for the first few weeks of life. Once the offspring becomes
too heavy to carry, females leave the young in a tree hollow and return periodically
to nurse. There is no information on the parental investment by males.
- Parental Investment
- female parental care
-
pre-fertilization
- provisioning
-
protecting
- female
-
pre-hatching/birth
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-weaning/fledging
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
Lifespan/Longevity
Some species of
Pteropus
have lived more than 30 years in captivity, but the lifespan of
P. caniceps
in the wild is unknown.
Behavior
Although behavior has not been well observed in North Moluccan flying foxes, other
Pteropus
species are nocturnal and roost in social colonies during the day. The daytime roosts
of
P. caniceps
are usually in the hollows of trees and the total geographic range of this species
is thought to cover 100,000 to 500,000 square kilometers.
Home Range
No information is available on the home range of North Moluccan flying foxes.
Communication and Perception
Many
Pteropus
species are reported to find food by vision and smell. This vision helps these species
navigate though forested areas during dusk and overnight hours.
Food Habits
Fruits and fruit juices are the principle food source for many species of
Pteropus
. However, to obtain other sources of nutrients not found in fruits, they will chew
on eucalyptus and flowers to prevent nutrient deficiencies.
- Plant Foods
- leaves
- fruit
- nectar
- flowers
Predation
Humans are often the primary predators for many
Pteropus
species. In areas throughout the Molluccan Seas, market sales and agriculture drive
exploitation through hunting of
Pteropus
.
Ecosystem Roles
North Moluccan flying foxes are environmentally significant for the pollination and
seed dispersal of many plants.
- Ecosystem Impact
- disperses seeds
- pollinates
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
North Moluccan flying foxes aid in seed dispersal and pollination for many different
plants used economically by humans. These plants are used for lumber, food, medicine,
and other products.
- Positive Impacts
- pollinates crops
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Pteropus caniceps
is considered a pest on agricultural farms that grow fruit crops.
- Negative Impacts
- crop pest
Conservation Status
North Moluccan flying foxes are recorded under IUCN as "near threatened" and CITES
Appendix II. There is currently no conservation effort in effect and it is unknown
if
P. caniceps
lives in protected areas.
Other Comments
Due to insufficient data on P. caniceps , there is substantial opportunity for further research into its natural history.
Additional Links
Contributors
Eric Schirmer (author), University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, Christopher Yahnke (editor), University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, Tanya Dewey (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.
- oriental
-
found in the oriental region of the world. In other words, India and southeast Asia.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Australian
-
Living in Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, New Guinea and associated islands.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- island endemic
-
animals that live only on an island or set of islands.
- tropical
-
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.
- terrestrial
-
Living on the ground.
- forest
-
forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.
- rainforest
-
rainforests, both temperate and tropical, are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground. Epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant. Precipitation is typically not limiting, but may be somewhat seasonal.
- agricultural
-
living in landscapes dominated by human agriculture.
- endothermic
-
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- viviparous
-
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female.
- female parental care
-
parental care is carried out by females
- arboreal
-
Referring to an animal that lives in trees; tree-climbing.
- nocturnal
-
active during the night
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- sedentary
-
remains in the same area
- social
-
associates with others of its species; forms social groups.
- colonial
-
used loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies. More specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits (a continuous, modular society) - as in clonal organisms.
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- herbivore
-
An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.
- frugivore
-
an animal that mainly eats fruit
References
Dobson, G. 1878. Catalogue of the Chiroptera in the Collection of the British Museum . London: Order of the Trustees.
Hutson, A., K. Helgen. 2008. "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species" (On-line). Accessed March 07, 2013 at http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/summary/18719/0 .
Lee, R., A. Gorog, A. Dwiyahreni, S. Siwu, J. Riley, H. Alexander, G. Paoli, W. Ramono. 2005. Wildlife trade and implications for law enforcement in Indonesia: a case study form North Sulawesi. Biological Conservation , 123/4: 477-488.
Martin, L., P. Towers, M. McGuckin, L. Little, H. Luckhoff, A. Blackshaw. 1987. Reproductive Biology of Flying Foxes (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae). Journal of the Australian Mammal Society , 10: 115-118.
McCracken, G., G. Wilkinson. 2000. Mating systems in bats and other mammals. Pp. 322-329 in Reproductive Biology of Bats . San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Nowak, R. 1999. Mammals of the World Sixth Edition (Volume 1) . Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Nowak, R. 1994. Walker's Bats of the World . Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Rainey, W., E. Rerson. 1992. Distribution of Pacific Island Flying Foxes. Pp. 111-122 in Pacific Island Flying Foxes: Proceedings of an International Conservation Conference . Washingtion: Fish and Wildlife Service.
Wilson, D., D. Reeder. 2005. "Mammal Species of the World. A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed)" (On-line). Accessed April 22, 2013 at http://www.bucknell.edu/msw3/browse.asp?s=y&id=13800262 .