Geographic Range
Tonkin snub-nosed monkeys are found in subtropical areas of Vietnam with evergreen
forests. These areas are typically associated with karst limestone hills and mountains.
Populations have been confirmed in the past in seven provinces of Northern Vietnam:
Ha Giang, Tuyen Quang, Cao Bang, Yen Bai, Bac Kan, Thai Nguyen, and Quang Ninh. They
have been found recently in Ha Giang, Tuyen Quang, and Bac Kan Provinces, and possibly
in Thai Nguyen Province.
Habitat
Tonkin snub-nosed monkeys only occur in subtropical broad-leaf and bamboo forests
that have monsoon rainfall and tropical temperatures. These forests are usually found
on top of limestone hills at elevations of less than 1000 m above sea level. Tonkin
snub-nosed monkeys are the only
snub-nosed monkeys
that occur in subtropical areas.
- Habitat Regions
- tropical
- terrestrial
- Terrestrial Biomes
- rainforest
Physical Description
Both sexes of adult Tonkin snub-nosed monkeys have upturned noses. They also have
fairly slender bodies with slender digits on the hands and feet in comparison to other
species in the genus
Rhinopithecus
.
Coat color and pattern variation has been reported among populations and individuals.
The general pattern is black fur on the outer limbs and back, the dorsal surface of
the tail, and the hands and feet. The elbows, chest, ventral side of the tail, inside
surfaces of the limbs and parts of the face are creamy-white. Parts of the face are
hairless, particularly around the nose and eyes, and have pale blue skin. They also
have orange coloration on the throat and dark coloration that outlines the mouth.
Males and females differ slightly in coloration. Males show more pronounced orange
around the throat and darker black around the mouth. In juveniles, the black parts
of the fur appear gray, they lack the orange in the throat region, and the black around
the mouth is not as pronounced as it is in adults.
The average mass of males is 13.8 kg and the average mass of females is 8.3 kg. The
length from the top of the head to the end of the body ranges from 51 cm and 65 cm,
and the length of the tail ranges from 66 to 92 cm. Dental formula in the genus
Rhinopithecus
is I 2/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3, for a total of 32 teeth. There is also sexual dimorphism
in terms of canine size, with males having larger canines on both top and bottom jaw.
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- homoiothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- male larger
- sexes colored or patterned differently
Reproduction
The social structure Tonkin snub-nosed monkeys has been described as being one male
monkey with multiple females and juveniles or groups of all males, suggesting a polygynous
mating system. A female will engage the male by getting him to follow her to various
branches; she will then move her tail above and to one side of her body prior to male
mounting. Once the male has positioned his feet on the branch he will mount the female
from the rear initiating copulation which was reported to have lasted approximately
43 seconds. In one case, after copulation the female moved to a neighboring tree and
the male moved to a lower branch where he moved his forelimb in front to of his face
and briefly shook his head. This description is the only observed mating event in
Tonkin snub-nosed monkeys.
- Mating System
- polygynous
There has been little research on the reproductive behavior of these monkeys as they
are rare and difficult to observe. After a gestation period of about 200 days, females
give birth to 1 or 2 offspring in the spring or summer. Males become sexually mature
at about 7 years of age and females at about 4 years of age. There is nothing reported
about the lactation period of this species.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- viviparous
There is not much known about the level of parental care exhibited by this species
of
snub-nosed monkey
. Adult females allogroom other members of the group. Allo-parental care has been
observed in golden and black snub-nosed monkeys, (
Rhinopithecus roxellana
and
Rhinopithecus bieti
) respectively, so it is possibly an alement of social behavior in Tonkin snub-nosed
monkeys also. It is likely that females invest heavily in young, as this is typical
of other species in this group.
- Parental Investment
- female parental care
-
pre-fertilization
- provisioning
-
protecting
- female
-
pre-hatching/birth
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-weaning/fledging
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-independence
-
protecting
- female
-
protecting
- post-independence association with parents
Lifespan/Longevity
The typical lifespan in
colobine
monkeys is about 20 years, with a lifespan of about 29 years in captivity. Lifespans
of Tonkin snub-nosed monkeys are not reported.
Behavior
Tonkin snub-nosed monkeys typically organize themselves into either all male groups
or groups of a single male with multiple females and juveniles; these groups typically
feed, sleep, and travel together. These monkeys are diurnal and sleeping sites for
this species are usually on lower branches of trees near steep mountain sides so as
to be protected from cold winds at night.
Groups sometimes split into separate groups or some groups come together to form a
larger group; this group fission-fusion suggests that there is inter-group tolerance.
Because groups fragment at times and fuse with other groups at other times, this species
does not appear to be territorial. Females allogroom other members of the group.
The type of locomotion used to move between trees is almost always by quadrupedal
walking, but they also use climbing and leaping. Other types of behavior associated
with adult movement being leaping between trees, hanging from the branches, and occasional
brachiation.
Home Range
Home range size is not reported for Tonkin snub-nosed monkeys. Some observations suggest
that they will spend most of their time within a range of roughly 10 square kilometers.
Communication and Perception
Vocalizations are the primary means of communication. The main vocalization of this
species sounds a lot like a hiccup (“huu chhhk”) and is used either in alarm calls
or to communicate with other individuals. This kind of communication usually occurs
during traveling or when locating a resource. Alarm calls are usually done in the
presence of researchers. These monkeys, like other primates, probably perceive the
world well with binocular, color vision and use pheromones to communicate with other
members of this species, but there has been no research on communication and perception
in Tonkin snub-nosed monkeys.
Food Habits
Tonkin snub-nosed monkeys eat leaves from trees, mainly bamboo or other evergreen
leaves. They are not strictly folivorous, as they eat a variety of plant parts and
fruits as well. The diet is comprised of 28% leaf stems, 28% fruits, 11% young leaves,
22% unripe fruit, 8% flowers, and 3% seeds. Thirty-one food species have been identified
belonging to 21 families make up the diet of the Tonkin sub-nosed monkey. The plant
species
Iodes seguini
,
Garcinia fagraeoides
,
Acer tonkinensis
,
Excentrodendron tonkinensis
, and
Brassaiopsis stellate
are consumed the most.
They have a specialized digestive system that is adapted for the digestion of leaves,
including a sacculated stomach. Their strong jaw musculature is related to their dietary
preferences for tough plant foods.
- Plant Foods
- leaves
- wood, bark, or stems
- seeds, grains, and nuts
- fruit
- flowers
Predation
Humans have been known to hunt and eat Tonkin snub-nosed monkeys despite the meat’s
apparently bad taste. No other predators of Tonkin snub-nosed monkeys are known, but
it is likely that they are preyed on by arboreal snakes and large birds of prey as
well as forest cats.
Ecosystem Roles
It is unclear what role these animals play in the ecosystem as they are rare. Tonkin
snub-nosed monkeys are herbivores so they may impact vegetation in their habitat.
Since they eat fruits, they could aid in the dispersal of seeds.
- Ecosystem Impact
- disperses seeds
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Tonkin snub-nosed monkeys have been used by locals as a food source and also to for
traditional "medicines," which have no true medicinal value. It is reported that body
parts are sometimes traded the borders of Vietnam and China. The hunting of this species
for these purposes poses one of the biggest threats to its conservation and has therefore
been made illegal.
- Positive Impacts
- food
- body parts are source of valuable material
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Tonkin snub-nosed monkeys do not negatively impact humans.
Conservation Status
Tonkin snub-nosed monkeys are critically endangered and completely restricted to northern
Vietnam. The biggest threats to this species are hunting and habitat degradation caused
by humans. Humans hunt and trap these monkeys for food, medicine and trade. All of
these acts are deemed illegal but still occurs.
Habitat destruction is also causing a decline in the population of the species. People
who live in these areas harvest bamboo and cut down trees to harvest the wood and
fruit. Gold mining in the area has also destroyed parts of the habitat by clearing
and excavating the land.
Tonkin snub-nosed monkeys have been recognized as one of the world’s 25 most endangered
primates since 2000 and were ranked as number 8 in the 2006 to 2008 report. A survey
in 2006 estimated the total population for the entire species was about 150 individuals,
but it is possible that it is lower.
Additional Links
Contributors
Rachel Cherka (author), University of Manitoba, Jane Waterman (editor), University of Manitoba, Tanya Dewey (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.
- oriental
-
found in the oriental region of the world. In other words, India and southeast Asia.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- tropical
-
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.
- terrestrial
-
Living on the ground.
- rainforest
-
rainforests, both temperate and tropical, are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground. Epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant. Precipitation is typically not limiting, but may be somewhat seasonal.
- endothermic
-
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- polygynous
-
having more than one female as a mate at one time
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- viviparous
-
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female.
- female parental care
-
parental care is carried out by females
- arboreal
-
Referring to an animal that lives in trees; tree-climbing.
- diurnal
-
- active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- sedentary
-
remains in the same area
- social
-
associates with others of its species; forms social groups.
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- food
-
A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.
- herbivore
-
An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.
- folivore
-
an animal that mainly eats leaves.
- frugivore
-
an animal that mainly eats fruit
References
Boonratana, R., X. Le. 1998. Conservation of Tonkin Snub-nosed Monkeys (Rhinopithecus [Presbyticus] avunculus) in Vietnam. Pp. 315-322 in The Natural History of the Doucs and Snub-nosed Monkeys . Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Ltd..
Boonratana, R., X. Le. 1998. Preliminary Observations on the Ecology and Behaviour of the Tonkin Snub-nosed Monkey (Rhinopithecus [Presbyticus] avunculus) in Northern Vietnam. Pp. 207-215 in The Natural History of the Doucs and Snub-nosed Monkeys . Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Co. Ltd..
Covert, H., L. Quyet, B. Wright. 2008. On the Brink of Extinction: Research for the Conservation of the Tonkin Snub-nosed Monkey (Rhinopithecus avunculus). Pp. 409-427 in Elwyn Simons: A Search for Origins . New York: Springer Science and Business Media, LLC.
Dong, T., S. Hua, R. Boonratana. 2011. A first observation on the sexual behavior of the Tonkin Snub-nosed Monkey (Rhinopithecus avunculus) in Vietnam. Asian Primates Journal , 2(1): 8-9.
Groves, C. 2007. Speciation and Biogeography of Vietnam’s primates. Vietnamese Journal of Primatology , 1: 27-40.
Jablonski, N., P. Ruliang. 1995. Sexual Dimorphism in the Snub-Nosed Langurs (Colobinae: Rhinopithecus). American Journal of Physical Anthropology , 96: 251-272.
Kirkpatrick, C. 1995. The Natural History and Conservation of the Snub-nosed Monkeys (Genus Rhinopithecus). Biological Conservation , 72: 363-369.
Kirkpatrick, R., C. Grueter. 2010. Snub-nosed Monkeys: Multilevel Societies Across Varied Environments. Evolutionary Anthropology , 19: 98-113.
Le, X., R. Boonratana. 2006.
A Conservation Action Plan for the Tonkin Snub-nosed Monkey in Vietnam
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Nowak, R. 1997. Walker’s Mammals of the World . Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Quyet, L., N. Anh Duc, V. Anh Tai, B. Wright, H. Covert. 2007. Diet of the Tonkin Snub-nosed Money (Rhinopithecus avunculus) in the Khau Ca area, Ha Giang Province, Notheastern Vietnam. Vietnamese Journal of Primatology , 1: 75-83.
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