Sparisoma viride

Geographic Range

Stoplight parrotfish are commonly found in the tropical western Atlantic Ocean from Bermuda to Brazil, including along the coasts of Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea (34°N-6°S, 36-100°W).

• Biogeographic Regions
• nearctic nearctic
  • native native
• neotropical neotropical
  • native native
• atlantic ocean atlantic ocean
  • native native

Habitat

Stoplight parrotfish live on reefs, depending on the shelter, protection, and nutrition that densely packed coral provides. In particular, the 1-2 cm wide tubes of branched finger coral ( Porites porites ) provide shelter and protection as well as a food source (algae) to juveniles. Young may also be found in seagrass beds. Adults often reside in shallower waters, usually over reef bases. These fish are most commonly found in clear waters at depths of 3-50 m. These habitats are characterized by coral species such as staghorn coral ( Acropora cervicornis ), elkhorn coral ( Acropora palmata ), and boulder star coral ( Montastrea annularis ). Population density tends to be greater in offshore reefs than inshore reefs, possibly due to increased fishing pressures inshore.

• Habitat Regions
• tropical tropical
• saltwater or marine saltwater or marine

• Aquatic Biomes
• reef reef
• coastal coastal

Physical Description

These fish range in length from 300-600 mm (10-24 in) and may continue to grow as they age; initial phase females range in size from 100-367 mm and terminal phase males are much larger, reaching lengths of over 600 mm. Average weight is approximately 1.6 kg (3.5 lbs). Stoplight parrotfish have strong, beaklike jaws formed by fused teeth; their bottom teeth fit inside their top teeth. They also have plate-like pharyngeal teeth. These fish have 9 dorsal spines, 10 soft dorsal rays, 3 anal spines, and 9 soft anal rays.

Coloration varies with age and sex. Juveniles have reddish brown and black scales, with three rows of white spots along their sides and a vertical white bar on the caudal fin. Their bellies are pale red. Adult females and primary males retain the reddish brown scales and are mottled with white, but no longer have white spots in distinct rows. Their bellies are bright red. Scales of females and juveniles are outlined in gray. Secondary males (fish born as females which but develop into males) lose this coloration, becoming green with diagonal orange bands on the head, yellow spots above and slightly behind the gill openings as well as at the base of the caudal fin, and a sickle-shaped yellowish-orange mark at the end of the caudal fin.

• Other Physical Features
• ectothermic ectothermic
• bilateral symmetry bilateral symmetry

• Sexual Dimorphism
• male larger
• sexes colored or patterned differently
• male more colorful

Development

Eggs are released and fertilized externally during spawning, in deep water reef areas. Eggs are approximately 1 mm in diameter and are negatively buoyant. Larvae, typically 1.4 mm long, hatch 25 hours after fertilization. Upon hatching, larvae have no eyes, coloring, or mouths. Within three days of hatching, a mouth appears; little else is known regarding development at this stage.

Juveniles of both sexes are not dimorphic; following a post-settlement period, they enter their initial phase. The majority of juveniles are female. Once reaching sexual maturity, some individuals may enter terminal phase; these fish are always male (sometimes known as secondary males or super males) and exhibit the blue-green coloration described above. Individuals that were born as males (known as primary males) will remain males into their terminal stage. Sex changes often occur when population numbers are low, and only involve females becoming males. Most growth and development occurs within the first four years of life; fish will continue to grow throughout their lives, but generally reach a size of 300-500 mm (roughly 10-20 in) at their terminal stage, though larger individuals have been recorded.

• Development - Life Cycle
• indeterminate growth indeterminate growth

Reproduction

Stoplight parrotfish spawn year round in deep water reef areas. Secondary males mate individually with a female partner, while smaller primary males will mate in groups, with multiple males to one female. Secondary males also defend and maintain harems of multiple females (typically 3-7).

• Mating System
• polyandrous polyandrous
• polygynous polygynous

Stoplight parrotfish reach sexual maturity by the age of four. Secondary males may reproduce as females before changing sex. Primary males will often mate in groups with one female, while secondary males will reserve females as their own to mate with. Secondary males maintain and defend a harem of multiple (usually 3-7) females, mating with them daily. Breeding occurs year round, more often during summer months. Fish travel from shallower reef waters to deeper areas to release eggs, where they are subject to less mechanical stress from water currents. After hatching, juvenile fish return to shallower reef areas.

• Key Reproductive Features
• iteroparous iteroparous
• year-round breeding year-round breeding
• gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
• sequential hermaphrodite
  • protogynous protogynous
• sexual sexual
• fertilization fertilization
  • external external
• oviparous oviparous

After depositing eggs, stoplight parrotfish have no further involvement in the care of their offspring.

• Parental Investment
• no parental involvement
• pre-fertilization
  • provisioning

Lifespan/Longevity

Data collected using otoliths and fish size measurements have shown the average age of fish collected to be 7-9 years. However, visual censuses have recorded individuals as old as 15-20 years, with a maximum age of 30 years. Commercial fishing activities and reef degradation contribute to more conservative expected lifespan estimates of this species, however.

Behavior

Stoplight parrotfish inhabit all portions of a reef, but they are most abundant at shallow reef bases and slopes. Most parrotfish live alone or in small groups. The majority of observed aggressive behaviors have been with other spotlight parrotfish, rather than with other species. These fish use their pectoral fins for vertical locomotion and their caudal fins for quick bursts of speed. Foraging occurs throughout the day, year-round, for an average of 12 hours a day; the most activity occurs at the height of the afternoon during the summer months (up to 14 hours a day), while activity during winter months decreases (to about 10 hours a day). Stoplight parrotfish sleep on the bottom at night.

• Key Behaviors
• natatorial natatorial
• diurnal diurnal
• motile motile
• sedentary sedentary
• solitary solitary
• territorial territorial
• social social
• dominance hierarchies dominance hierarchies

Home Range

Stoplight parrotfish maintain medium-sized territories (approximately 100-300 m^2) and have an average daily feeding range of 50-800 m^2.

Communication and Perception

Stoplight parrotfish are able to identify potential mates by their color. Like most other fish species, they also possess a lateral line to detect vibrations in the water, a well-developed inner ear for the detection of sounds, and olfactory receptors located in two pairs of nares, found on the head.

• Communication Channels
• visual visual

• Perception Channels
• visual visual
• tactile tactile
• acoustic acoustic
• chemical chemical

Food Habits

These fish forage on live and dead coral, and occasionally on detritus. Rather than feeding by scraping corals, stoplight parrotfish excavate coral skeletons, creating deep holes using their strong jaws and regenerative teeth. While they appear to be feeding on the coral itself, the polyps (and their mutualistic photosynthetic zooxanthellae) that exist within the coral skeleton are what actually provides nutrients to the fish. After boring into the coral with fused, plate-like teeth (which resemble a beak), the fish use the pharyngeal teeth located at the back of the throat to grind the coral. Algal nutrients are obtained and the crushed coral debris is deposited as a sand-like waste. Preferred food sources include branched corals, such as elkhorn coral ( Acropora palmata ), boulder star coral ( Montastrea annularis ), and finger coral ( Poritus porites ).

• Primary Diet
• carnivore carnivore
  • eats other marine invertebrates
• herbivore herbivore
  • algivore
• omnivore omnivore
• detritivore detritivore

• Animal Foods
• cnidarians
• zooplankton zooplankton

• Plant Foods
• algae

• Other Foods
• detritus detritus

Predation

Stoplight parrotfish are fished by humans as a food source and hunted by carnivorous fish including snappers, jacks, and moray eels. Little is known about this species' defense mechanisms against such predators. Other species of parrotfish are known to react when threatened, however. For example, queen parrotfish ( Scarus vetula ) may spread their fins and attempt to chase away or bite other threatening fish. Several species of parrotfish are also known to encase themselves in a self-secreted, mucous-like bubble while sleeping, masking their scent from predators.

Ecosystem Roles

Stoplight parrotfish are external bioeroders, regulating and maintaining coral reef habitat. Their biting, scraping, and excreting of coralline algae and coral debris recycles the materials needed for new coral production. Bioerosion can be potentially detrimental to reefs in areas where erosion exceeds construction (such as in nutrient rich waters created by runoff or warm, active waters); however, the activity of parrotfish is generally beneficial. Stoplight parrotfish also create habitat for smaller organisms within the coral, increasing reef diversity and productive biomass. Moderate mechanical interference by parrotfish and other bioeroders can also aid in coral reproduction, weakening the coral just enough so that other bioeroding processes can break off fragments, which propagate the reef.

Stoplight parrotfish are known hosts to a number of ecto and endoparasites. They may be attended to by cleaner fishes, such as wrasse; this relationship benefits both animals, as parasites are removed from one fish and consumed by the other.

• Ecosystem Impact
• creates habitat
• biodegradation biodegradation

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

Due to their vibrant coloration, stoplight parrotfish can often be found in public aquaria. They are also fished as a food source. Their contribution to, and regulation of, coral communities is indirectly vital to humans who utilize other reef organisms as food sources.

• Positive Impacts
• food food
• ecotourism ecotourism

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

These and other reef fish may ingest toxin-containing algae of the dinoflagellate genus Gambierdiscus , often found in subtropical and tropical coral reefs. By ingesting contaminated fish, humans may contract ciguatera poisoning. Exposure is usually not fatal, but symptoms include gastrointestinal (diarrhea, vomiting, and nausea), cardiovascular (hypotension, bradycardia), and neurological (fatigue, joint and muscle pain, and numbness or tingling of extremities) distress.

• Negative Impacts
• injures humans
  • carries human disease

Conservation Status

This species is not considered to be in danger of becoming threatened or extinct and is listed as a species of Least Concern by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.

Additional Links

Encyclopedia of Life

Contributors

Christopher Kane (author), Sierra College, Jennifer Skillen (editor), Sierra College, Jeremy Wright (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.

References

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