Taphozous

tomb bats

Features
By Theo Leger

Diversity

Taphozous is comprised of 14 species split between 2 subgenera (Wilson & Reeder, 2005). However, the necessity of the subgenus Liponycteris has been called into question in recent literature (Uvizl et al., 2019). Although many of the species have stable populations, Taphozous hildegardeae is a notable exception, being endangered (Webala et al., 2020).

Taphozous species are terrestrial insectivores that are found in a wide variety of habitats, ranging from arid deserts to humid rainforests (Patterson & Webala, 2012; Wilson & Reeder, 2005). The presence of a glandular sac on the wing is an identifying character of this genus, for which the common name sac-winged refers to (Hester & Myers, 2001; Patterson & Webala, 2012).

Geographic Range

Taphozous species can be found prominently throughout the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, with limited distribution in the Palearctic and Australian regions as well (Wilson & Reeder, 2005). There are no known introduced populations.

Some species have heavily restricted ranges compared to other members of Taphozous . Taphozous hildegardeae is endemic to a small portion of the coastline along Kenya and Tanzania, with populations also having been found on the nearby Zanzibar Island (Webala et al., 2020). Taphozous australis has a similarly small range, only occupying the northeast coast of Queensland (Armstrong, 2021).

Habitat

Taphozous species can be found in a diverse range of habitats, including deserts, savannas, wetlands, coastlines, tropical rainforests, dry forests, caves, and urban areas (Armstrong, 2021; Monadjem et al., 2017a, 2017b; Webala et al., 2020). Roosting sites among species are variable, but cliff faces, rock crevices, tree trunks, and in the case of coastal species, sea caves, are most favorable (Armstrong, 2021; Monadjem, 2017b). Many Taphozous species also roost in close proximity to humans, preferring various structures ranging from tombs to tall, inhabited brick buildings with areas such as exposed beams to escape to when disturbed (Monadjem et al., 2017a, 2017b; O'Malley et al., 2020). Preferable foraging habitats include open water and woodland areas, with some species traveling as far as 15 km from their roosts to hunt (Armstrong, 2021).

Systematic and Taxonomic History

Current research suggests Taphozous rests within Emballonuridae , under the subfamily Taphozoinae (Wilson & Reeder, 2005). Taphozous is currently split into two subgenera, Taphozous and Liponycteris (Wilson & Reeder, 2005). However, the validity of the subgenus Liponycteris is currently being debated (Uvizl et al., 2019).

Taphozous formerly included Saccolaimus as a subgenus, which was then elevated to genus status in 1991 (Chimimba & Kitchener, 1991). Currently, Saccolaimus is recognized as the sister taxon to Taphozous (Uvizl et al., 2019).

Physical Description

Taphozous species are medium to large sized bats with a forearm length ranging from 56 mm to 79 mm (Colket & Wilson, 1998; Patterson & Webala, 2012). Body and head length can range from 64 mm to 112 mm, with significant variation depending on species and location (Dengis, 1996; Harrison, 1958). Color variation includes solid browns, blacks, and tans, or in the case of Taphozous mauritianus , a unique "grizzled" patterning comprised of brown, gray, and white (Dengis, 1996). Countershading is present in some species, such as T. mauritianus and Taphozous hildegardeae (Dengis, 1996; Kingdon et al., 2018). All members of the genus possess a glandular sac on the wing (Hester & Myers, 2001; Patterson & Webala, 2012).

Sexual dimorphism in Taphozous is limited, however males in some species possess notable gular pouches or glands (Muñoz-Romo & Page, 2021).

Members of the subgenus Taphozous have notable concavity in the frontal regions of their skull, and their bodies are fully covered in fur (Colket & Wilson, 1998). On the contrary, members of Liponycteris show little concavity, with the posterior region of their bodies lacking fur (Colket & Wilson, 1998).

  • Sexual Dimorphism
  • sexes alike

Reproduction

The mating systems among most Taphozous species are ill-defined. Taphozous hildegardeae is notably polygynous, with dominant males maintaining harems of females within their territories (Colket & Wilson, 1998). Males display territorial behavior towards other males, and will scent mark females within their harems (Colket & Wilson, 1998).

Taphozous species reproduction is seemingly dependent on seasonality, such as wet versus dry seasons, and geography, with breeding occurring year-round or with defined breeding seasons depending on the species and location (Colket & Wilson, 1998; Dengis, 1996; Smith et al., 2013). Many species are polyestrous in some parts of their geographic range, and then monoestrous in others (Dengis, 1996; Harrison, 1958).

Depending on the above factors, birthing can take place between February-June and October-December (Dengis, 1996; Harrison, 1958; Kingdon et al., 2013). Sperm storage and delayed fertilization is exhibited by some species, such as Taphozous nudiventris , in which sperm from September-October is stored over hibernation and then used for fertilization in March (Kingdon et al., 2013). The gestation period in this species is around 9 weeks (Kingdon et al., 2013). Taphozous melanopogon demonstrates a longer gestation period, ranging around 120-125 days (Smith et al., 2013). There is limited information on gestation periods for other Taphozous species.

Across all species, typically a single pup will be born, but twins are also possible (Smith et al., 2013). Some polyestrous species may have two pups in a year, in separate litters (Lim et al., 2018; Skinner & Chimimba, 2005).

Taphozous species are born altricial, with pups relying solely on their mothers for survival (Kingdon et al., 2013). Taphozous nudiventris pups will cling onto their mothers until they are ready to fly independently, with estimates around 8 weeks old (Dengis, 1996; Kingdon et al., 2013). There are variable reports as to whether the pup continues to accompany the mother for those entire 8 weeks, or if at some point it begins to stay back at the roost while she forages (Kingdon et al., 2013). Weaning begins around week 6, with the pup continuing to stay close to its mother when foraging far from the roost (Kingdon et al., 2013). There is limited information for the extent of parental investment in other Taphozous species.

  • Parental Investment
  • altricial
  • female parental care
  • pre-weaning/fledging
    • provisioning
      • female
    • protecting
      • female
  • pre-independence
    • provisioning
      • female
    • protecting
      • female

Lifespan/Longevity

The longevity of Taphozous species is currently unknown.

Behavior

There is notable variation in social behaviors among Taphozous species. Taphozous perforatus , Taphozous melanopogon , and Taphozous nudiventris are gregarious, and are known to roost with hundreds and up into thousands of other individuals (Kingdon et al., 2013; Smith et al., 2013). Conversely, Taphozous mauritianus is more solitary, with as little as 5 individuals roosting together on average, but colonies of up to 30 have been observed (Skinner & Chimimba, 2005).

Most Taphozous species leave their caves soon after sunset to hunt, although T. mauritianus has been observed taking off in the daytime (Dengis, 1996; Skinner & Chimimba, 2005; Wei et al., 2008). T. melanopogon has been found to depart the roost at the same exact time regardless of the season, resulting in departure times ranging from sunset to after dark (Nowak, 1994). Many species stain the walls of their roosts with urine and gular sac secretions (Dengis, 1996; Smith et al., 2013).

Hibernation behaviors among Taphozous species varies depending on the species and location. Taphozous longimanus and T. melanopogon are suspected to hibernate based on fat accumulation during different parts of the year, but further investigation is needed (Nowak, 1994; Singh, Krishna, & Bhatnagar, 2002; Wang 2004). Taphozous nudiventris individuals in Iraq hibernate during the winter, while those in Pakistan spend the season in torpor (Kingdon et al., 2013). There is limited information on the hibernation habits of other Taphozous species.

Migratory patterns for most Taphozous species are ill-defined, but T. nudiventris has been observed to be a seasonal migrator (Kingdon et al., 2013).

Communication and Perception

Taphozous species are known to have good eyesight, which plays an important role in navigation (Dengis, 1996; Skinner & Chimimba, 2005). Taphozous mauritianus in particular relies on vision while roosting in the daytime, and seems to avoid dark areas (Dengis, 1996; Skinner & Chimimba, 2005).

Many Taphozous species exhibit shrill sounds when injured, or may call out to other individuals while flying (Nowak, 1994). Some species are also know to emit social calls while roosting (Dengis, 1996).

Echolocation has been observed in many Taphozous species. Taphozous melanopogon exhibits low intensity, long duration calls for detecting long distance prey (Wei et al., 2008). Conversely, T. mauritianus is able to emit high intensity calls, although its vocalizations varies depending on its habitat (Dengis, 1996). Taphozous nudiventris is known to echolocate as well, but details on its vocalizations are limited (Kelbel, 2006). Taphozous species are currently understood to be oral echolocators (Dengis, 1996).

Some Taphozous species communicate through scent marking as well, such as Taphozous hildegardeae , T. nudiventris , and T. melanopogon , although the purpose in some of these species is unclear (Colket & Wilson, 1998; Kelbel, 2006; Wang, 2004).

Food Habits

Taphozous species are insectivorous, feeding primarily on moths (Dengis, 1996; Kingdon et al., 2013; Rydell & Yalden, 1996). Most species feed on termites, such as Macrotermes falciger , beetles, crickets, ants, and other flying insects (Dengis, 1996; Kingdon et al., 2013; Rydell & Yalden, 1996). Taphozous mauritianus in particular has been found to also feed on butterflies in the daytime (Skinner & Chimimba, 2005).

Taphozous species use various methods to hunt, ranging from using their eyesight in the daytime, to echolocating at night (Dengis, 1996; Skinner & Chimimba, 2005).

Predation

Taphozous species are primarily preyed upon by other flying animals such as owls and hawks, although predation by snakes has been reported (Dengis, 1996; Kingdon et al., 2013). Barn owls in particular have been found to prey on Taphozous nudiventris (Qumsiyeh, 1985).

Taphozous species avoid predation primarily by roosting in well protected areas, flying quickly and at high altitudes, and by doing most of their hunting at night (Dengis, 1996; Wang, 2004). Their good eyesight also aids them in identifying predators in the daytime (Dengis, 1996; Skinner & Chimimba, 2005).

Ecosystem Roles

Taphozous species are effective at controlling pest populations (Fenton, Bell, & Thomas, 2011; Wang, 2004).

Many Taphozous species serve as the hosts for a variety of parasites, including species from the Anchitrema genus, Trypanosoma longiflagellum , Lecithodendrium duboisi , Prosthodendrium parvouterus , Plagiorchis koreanus , and Pycnoporus heteroporus . (Dengis, 1996; Kelbel, 2006).

Commensal/Parasitic Species

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

Taphozous species are prolific in controlling pests that prove harmful to humans, namely termites and species that negatively impact crops (Dengis, 1996; Kelbel, 2006; Kingdon et al., 2013; Wang, 2004).

  • Positive Impacts
  • controls pest population

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

Taphozous species are capable of transmitting lyssaviruses to humans, such as rabies (Nguyen et al., 2014). There are no other known adverse effects of Taphozous species on humans.

Conservation Status

Most Taphozous species aren't threatened, but there are a few exceptions. Taphozous hildegardeae is endangered, with populations declining due to habitat loss (Webala et al., 2020). Although there are some populations that may reside in protected areas in Tanzania, larger colonies in Kenya mostly inhabit caves on unprotected land, which makes their roosts vulnerable to disturbance (Webala et al., 2020).

Taphozous australis is considered near threatened as a result of development destroying and disturbing their roosts, as well as mining activity (Armstrong, 2021). Populations have been slowly declining in the southern portion of their range, but northern populations are currently considered stable (Armstrong, 2021).

Encyclopedia of Life

Contributors

Theo Leger (author), Colorado State University, Tanya Dewey (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.

Palearctic

living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.

World Map

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

oriental

found in the oriental region of the world. In other words, India and southeast Asia.

World Map

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

Ethiopian

living in sub-Saharan Africa (south of 30 degrees north) and Madagascar.

World Map

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

Australian

Living in Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, New Guinea and associated islands.

World Map

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

tropical

the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.

terrestrial

Living on the ground.

desert or dunes

in deserts low (less than 30 cm per year) and unpredictable rainfall results in landscapes dominated by plants and animals adapted to aridity. Vegetation is typically sparse, though spectacular blooms may occur following rain. Deserts can be cold or warm and daily temperates typically fluctuate. In dune areas vegetation is also sparse and conditions are dry. This is because sand does not hold water well so little is available to plants. In dunes near seas and oceans this is compounded by the influence of salt in the air and soil. Salt limits the ability of plants to take up water through their roots.

tropical savanna and grassland

A terrestrial biome. Savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy. Extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical Africa and South America, and in Australia.

savanna

A grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees, a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest. See also Tropical savanna and grassland biome.

temperate grassland

A terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes (>23.5° N or S latitude). Vegetation is made up mostly of grasses, the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available. Fire and grazing are important in the long-term maintenance of grasslands.

forest

forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.

rainforest

rainforests, both temperate and tropical, are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground. Epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant. Precipitation is typically not limiting, but may be somewhat seasonal.

scrub forest

scrub forests develop in areas that experience dry seasons.

coastal

the nearshore aquatic habitats near a coast, or shoreline.

swamp

a wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water, often dominated by woody vegetation.

urban

living in cities and large towns, landscapes dominated by human structures and activity.

suburban

living in residential areas on the outskirts of large cities or towns.

polygynous

having more than one female as a mate at one time

iteroparous

offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).

seasonal breeding

breeding is confined to a particular season

year-round breeding

breeding takes place throughout the year

sexual

reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female

viviparous

reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female.

sperm-storing

mature spermatozoa are stored by females following copulation. Male sperm storage also occurs, as sperm are retained in the male epididymes (in mammals) for a period that can, in some cases, extend over several weeks or more, but here we use the term to refer only to sperm storage by females.

delayed fertilization

a substantial delay (longer than the minimum time required for sperm to travel to the egg) takes place between copulation and fertilization, used to describe female sperm storage.

altricial

young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth/hatching. In birds, naked and helpless after hatching.

female parental care

parental care is carried out by females

diurnal
  1. active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
nocturnal

active during the night

motile

having the capacity to move from one place to another.

migratory

makes seasonal movements between breeding and wintering grounds

hibernation

the state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced, thus lowering the animal's energy requirements. The act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state, typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals.

territorial

defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement

social

associates with others of its species; forms social groups.

colonial

used loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies. More specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits (a continuous, modular society) - as in clonal organisms.

visual

uses sight to communicate

acoustic

uses sound to communicate

chemical

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

scent marks

communicates by producing scents from special gland(s) and placing them on a surface whether others can smell or taste them

visual

uses sight to communicate

tactile

uses touch to communicate

acoustic

uses sound to communicate

echolocation

The process by which an animal locates itself with respect to other animals and objects by emitting sound waves and sensing the pattern of the reflected sound waves.

chemical

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

cryptic

having markings, coloration, shapes, or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment; being difficult to see or otherwise detect.

causes disease in humans

an animal which directly causes disease in humans. For example, diseases caused by infection of filarial nematodes (elephantiasis and river blindness).

carnivore

an animal that mainly eats meat

insectivore

An animal that eats mainly insects or spiders.

endothermic

animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.

bilateral symmetry

having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.

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To cite this page: Leger, T. 2025. "Taphozous" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed {%B %d, %Y} at https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Taphozous/

Last updated: 2025-27-30 / Generated: 2025-10-03 00:55

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