Geographic Range
Tarsius dentatus
(Dian's tarsier) from the northern part of Sulawesi, Indonesia was originally described
as a new species in 1921 by Miller and Hollister. In 1991, Niemitz and coworkers characterized
a purported new species named
Tarsius dianae
. However, in 1997, Shekelle and coworkers proposed that
T. dianae
was a synonym of
T. dentatus
. Further analysis is required to determine whether they are the same species. Dian's
tarsiers occur predominantly in central Sulawesi, an island of Indonesia. Their presence
is largely determined by their vocalizations (Nietsch and Kopp, 1998). Gursky (1998,
2007) states that most members of the species live in the Morowali Nature Reserve
and Lore Lindu National Park.
- Other Geographic Terms
- island endemic
Habitat
This tarsier species lives both in primary and secondary lowland rainforests in central
Sulawesi. Field studies reveal that the population density of
T. dentatus
varies from 129 to 136 individuals per square kilometer (Gursky, 2007). At an altitude
of 500 to 1000 meters, population density is estimated to be 180 individuals, while
at 1000 to 1500 meters, only 57 individuals per square kilometer were observed. The
population was also approximately ten times more dense in secondary forests than primary
forests.
- Habitat Regions
- tropical
- terrestrial
- Terrestrial Biomes
- rainforest
Physical Description
Tarsiers are easily distinguished by their size, large orbits, and elongated tarsal
bones. The head of tarsiers is round with a reduced muzzle and short neck.
Tarsius dentatus
is larger than
T. pumilus
but similar in size to
T. tarsius
. The coat color of Dian's tarsiers is grayish-buff and the tail is naked except for
some hair at the end.
Tarsius dentatus
can be identified by the presence of short, white hairs flanking the upper lip and
in the middle of the lower lip. It can be distinguished from
T. spectrum
by the lack of brown pelage at the hip, thigh, or knee and darker pigmentation on
the tail, fingers, toes, and nails.
Tarsius dentatus
also has a more conspicuous black line of fur surrounding the eyes than does
T. spectrum
. The ears of
T. dentatus
are shorter and wider than those of
T. spectrum
and there is a hairless patch at the base of each ear. The fur of subadults is slightly
more gray and woolly than those of
T. spectrum
.
The digits are padded to allow gripping with grasping hands and feet. The finger nails
of
T. dentatus
are curved, pointed, and dark. Females have two pairs of mammary glands.
Because this species is nocturnal and lacks a tapetum lucidum, its eyes are enlarged
to a diameter of approximately 16 mm. The eyes appear asymmetrical and not fully opened
compared to those of
T. spectrum
.
Tarsius dentatus
is able to rotate its head 180 degrees.
The nasal region is covered with short hair except for an area of naked skin around
the nostrils.
Tarsius dentatus
has well-developed, laterally folded nostrils. It also has large ears, but they are
short compared to those of
T. spectrum
.
Tarsius dentatus
has a more delicate mandible than that of
T. spectrum
. The dental formula of this species is 2/1:1:3:3, and it has large, pointed upper
and lower incisors. The upper canines are small.
Tarsiers are small and nocturnal. They do not exhibit torpor, a state of dormancy
during food shortages.
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- homoiothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- sexes alike
Reproduction
Although tarsiers were believed to be monogamous, studies have shown that Sulawesi
tarsiers actually exhibit facultative polygyny and form strong pair bonds. Males are
more territorial than females and have a greater home range. The mating system of
Tarsius dentatus
remains to be studied.
The mating behavior of
Tarsius dentatus
has not been studied. Before the onset of female ovulation, both male and female
tarsiers groom themselves and mark their environment more frequently with urine and
feces. Males have been observed to chase after estrous females while chirping like
a bird, and they examine female genitals by sniffing. Vocalizations by both sexes
also increase in frequency, and include a "piercing-twittering 'chit-chit'".
The reproductive behavior of
Tarsius dentatus
has not been studied. In general, tarsier females give birth to one offspring per
year with a long gestation period. The rate of fetal and postnatal development of
tarsiers is among the slowest of all mammals. Tarsier infants are also proportionally
the largest of all non-anthropoid primate infants. Most of their mass is composed
of brain mass, eyes, and cranium. The dedication of resources to the brain leads to
the rapid development of foraging and locomotor behaviors.
Pregnancy is often very costly for female tarsiers. Pregnant females have low mobility,
impaired foraging abilities, and maintain smaller home ranges than their non-pregnant
counterparts. Furthermore, postpartum females cannot lactate and transport infants
at the same time due to energy restrictions. They often "park" their offspring on
a secure branch. Pregnant females were observed in a year-round study, and there appears
to be no seasonal variation in mating.
Studies on
T. spectrum
have revealed that young tarsier females stay with their parents until adulthood,
whereas young males leave as juveniles.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- year-round breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- viviparous
Pairs of female and male tarsiers stay together to form close bonds for at least 15
months. Tarsier infants can cling to a vertical surface. Female progeny stay with
their parents until adulthood, whereas young males leave during youth. Tarsier mothers
and young have been reported to exhibit reciprocal sniffing after birth as a way of
recognition.
- Parental Investment
- precocial
-
pre-fertilization
- provisioning
-
protecting
- female
-
pre-hatching/birth
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-weaning/fledging
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-independence
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
- extended period of juvenile learning
Lifespan/Longevity
Tarsius dentatus
has never been kept in captivity, but in general tarsiers in captivity live an average
of 5 years with a maximum of 12 years.
Behavior
This species has been described to live in groups of less than 8 individuals composed
of 1 adult male and 1 to 3 adult females and their offspring. They spend the day sleeping
in a group-specific sleeping site, and at night they hunt and eat. Tremble observed
that
T. dentatus
sleeps in groups in locations with dense foliage, vine tangles, fallen logs, and
tree cavities (Gursky, 2007). Although they prefer to sleep in strangling figs, Dian's
tarsiers can sleep in a variety of other sites. Sleeping sites were found at the periphery
of home ranges, which implies territorial behavior in
Tarsius dentatus
to refresh their scent marks. At night, the breakdown of activities of
T. dentatus
is as follows: 44% foraging, 28% traveling, 21% resting, and 7% resting. Dian's tarsiers
were observed to rest and move about randomly for most of the night after 4 hours
of leaping. Before sunrise, adult and subadult tarsiers perform duets to strengthen
group bonding and advertise their territories. Subsequently, triggered by the territorial
duet songs, the tarsiers move across great distances as fast as 100 m in 15 minutes
to arrive at their sleeping sites.
Dian's tarsiers are arboreal and classified as vertical clingers and leapers. Other
modes of locomotion include hopping, quadrupedalism, and cantering. Unlike
T. spectrum
, this species spends more time quadrupedally walking on horizontal supports (Schwartz,
2003).
This species identifies uses urine for scent marking.
- Key Behaviors
- arboreal
- scansorial
- saltatorial
- nocturnal
- crepuscular
- motile
- sedentary
- territorial
- social
Home Range
The home range of this species, studied from radio-tracking, was described as smaller
than that of
T. spectrum
. The territory for one male was measured to be 0.8 ha, and 0.5 ha for three additional
individuals. However, further studies need to verify the accuracy of these measurements
because Gursky noted the effect of heavy radio collars on the behavior of tarsiers.
Additional studies by Merker in 2006 showed that the home ranges were 1.6 to 1.8 ha.
Female home ranges were as large as 1.08 to 1.8 ha, which is smaller than the 2.3
to 3.1 ha reported for
Tarsius spectrum
. Home ranges were smaller in slightly disturbed forests in which food and other resources,
such as trees for locomotion and sleeping, were scarce. No seasonal fluctuation in
range size was observed when insect population density varied.
Communication and Perception
Males and females communicate with a special call known as the "male-female duet" in which females and males emit differently pitched sounds for 45 seconds at a sleeping site before dawn. There is regional variation in duet calls. The female begins calling by lowering the frequency pitch 16 to 9 kHz, continues her call at 7 or 8 to 1 kHz, and concludes by bringing the pitch back up to 9 to 16 kHz with a range of 1 to 9 kHz. Similarly, the male's pitch falls from 10 kHz to 5 kHz at the beginning and steadily rises to 14 kHz until the end. It is thought that the duets serve to prevent conflict by warning potential intruders of the claimed territory and of already paired individuals.
The species also identifies scent marks made from secreted urine and other substances
from the epigastric glands.
- Other Communication Modes
- duets
- scent marks
Food Habits
Tarsiers are primarily insectivores that hunt by visual predation and feed on crickets
(
Gryllidae
), grasshoppers (
Orthoptera
), and moths (
Lepidoptera
). They also eat small lizards and crustaceans, such as shrimps, in captivity. Tarsiers
capture prey by carefully watching prey movements and leaping forward suddenly to
capture prey in both hands. The food is chewed with a side-to-side motion of the jaw
while the tarsier sits on its hind limbs grasping a tree branch. Tarsiers also ingest
water by lapping, or take in liquid using the tongue. However, the specific eating
habits of
Tarsius dentatus
remain to be studied.
- Primary Diet
- carnivore
- Animal Foods
- reptiles
- insects
Predation
Predators of tarsiers are not well studied, but Gursky (2007) suggests that they include
birds of prey (
Falconiformes
), civets (
Viverra
), and snakes (
Serpentes
). In the Merker etal. (2005) field study of
Tarsius dianae
no predation was observed.
Ecosystem Roles
Tarsiers capture and eat live animal prey at night. Hence, their role in the ecosystem
has been compared to that of an owl. Tarsiers prefer to prey on insects active at
night that experience less dramatic seasonal fluctuations in population. Tarsier predation
minimizes competition because other insectivores such as bats and birds cannot easily
maneuver through the dense understory of the forest at night.
Tarsius dentatus
also serves as a host for many common parasites. Through fecal analysis, Niemitz
et al. (1991) found intestinal parasites including
Entamoeba
and two
Digenea
trematode species, none of which are present in
T. spectrum
.
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Spectral tarsiers have been a popular tourist attraction in Tangkoko, northern Sulawewsi (Fitch-Snyder, 2003). In the future, when Tarsius dentatus is better studied and more popular, Morowali Nature Reserve and Lore Lindu National Park might serve as sites for economic tourism.
Tarsiers are an ancient line of primates existing for at least forty million years.
They occupy a unique primate niche and have many morphological and behavioral specializations.
Tarsius dentatus
is invaluable to the scientific and education communities for understanding the origin
and evolution of
haplorhine primates
.
- Positive Impacts
- ecotourism
- research and education
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
There are no known adverse effects of
Tarsius dentatus
on humans.
Conservation Status
Tarsius dentatus
is categorized as low risk on multiple conservation lists because of their nocturnal
habits, ability to adjust to disturbed habitats, and because they reside in large,
protected parks such as Lora Lindi (also Lora Lindu). Despite efforts to preserve
these parks, the species is still threatened by habitat destruction and hunting by
humans. Lore Lindi National Park is surrounded by many agrarian communities that hunt
within the park and use timber and rattan as a source of income. Similarly, Morowali
Nature Reserve also protects a group of endemic slash-and-burn horticulturalists,
Wana, who hunt tarsiers with dogs and blowguns and burn the land for dry rice agriculture.
Other Comments
Karyotyping of this species by Niemitz et al. (1991) revealed that
Tarsius dentatus
has 46 chromosomes made of 5 pairs of acrocentric chromosomes and 17 meta- or submetacentric
pairs, whereas
T. syrichta
has 80 chromosomes made of 7 meta- or submetacentric pairs and 33 acrocentric chromosomal
pairs.
Additional Links
Contributors
Tanya Dewey (editor), Animal Diversity Web.
Liubin Yang (author), Yale University, Eric Sargis (editor, instructor), Yale University.
- oriental
-
found in the oriental region of the world. In other words, India and southeast Asia.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- island endemic
-
animals that live only on an island or set of islands.
- tropical
-
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.
- terrestrial
-
Living on the ground.
- rainforest
-
rainforests, both temperate and tropical, are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground. Epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant. Precipitation is typically not limiting, but may be somewhat seasonal.
- endothermic
-
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- year-round breeding
-
breeding takes place throughout the year
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- viviparous
-
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female.
- young precocial
-
young are relatively well-developed when born
- arboreal
-
Referring to an animal that lives in trees; tree-climbing.
- saltatorial
-
specialized for leaping or bounding locomotion; jumps or hops.
- nocturnal
-
active during the night
- crepuscular
-
active at dawn and dusk
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- sedentary
-
remains in the same area
- territorial
-
defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement
- social
-
associates with others of its species; forms social groups.
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- duets
-
to jointly display, usually with sounds in a highly coordinated fashion, at the same time as one other individual of the same species, often a mate
- scent marks
-
communicates by producing scents from special gland(s) and placing them on a surface whether others can smell or taste them
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- ecotourism
-
humans benefit economically by promoting tourism that focuses on the appreciation of natural areas or animals. Ecotourism implies that there are existing programs that profit from the appreciation of natural areas or animals.
- carnivore
-
an animal that mainly eats meat
- insectivore
-
An animal that eats mainly insects or spiders.
References
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Doyle, G. 1979. Development of Behavior in Prosimians with Special Reference to the Lesser Bushbaby, Galago senegalensis moholi . Pp. 157-206 in The Study of Prosimian Behavior . New York: Academic Press, Inc..
Fitch-Snyder, H. 2003. History of Captive Conservation of Tarsiers. Pp. 277-295 in Tarsiers: The Past, Present, and Future . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Flannery, S. 2007. "The Primata" (On-line). Primate Fact Sheets. Accessed May 09, 2007 at http://members.tripod.com/uakari/tarsius_dianae.html .
Groves, C. 2003. The Tarsiers of Sulawesi. Pp. 179-195 in Tarsiers: The Past, Present, and Future . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Gursky, S. 2007. The Spectral Tarsier . New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc..
Gursky, S. 1998. Conservation Status of the Spectral Tarsier. Folia Primatol , 69: 191-203.
Hill, J., J. Florian. 1963. The development of the primitive streak, head-process and annular zone in Tarsius, with comparative notes on Loris . New York,: Basel S. Karger.
Jablonski, N. 2003. The Evolution of the Tarsiid Niche. Pp. 35-49 in Tarsiers: The Past, Present, and Future . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Merker, S., I. Yustian, M. Mühlenberg. 2005. Responding to forest degradation: altered habitat use by Dian's tarsier Tarsius dianae in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Oryx , 39/02: 189-195. Accessed May 09, 2007 at http://www.journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=301004 .
Merker, S. 2006. Habitat-specific ranging patterns of Dian's tarsiers (Tarsius dianae) as revealed by radiotracking. American Journal of Primatology , 68: 111-125. Accessed May 09, 2007 at http://www.interscience.wiley.com .
Niemitz, C., A. Nietsch, S. Warter, Y. Rumpler. 1991. Tarsius dianae : A New Primate Species from Central Sulawesi (Indonesia). Folia Primatologica , 56: 105-116.
Nietsch, A., M. Kopp. 1998. Role of Vocalization in Species Differentiation of Sulawesi Tarsiers. Folia Primatologica , 69: 371-378.
Nowak, R. 1999. Walker's Mammals of the World . Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press.
Schilling, A. 1979. Olfactory Communication in Prosimians. Pp. 461-542 in The Study of Prosimian Behavior . New York: Academic Press, Inc..
Schwartz, J. 2003. How Close Are the Similarities between Tarsius and Other Primates?. Pp. 50-96 in Tarsiers: The Past, Present, and Future . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Van Horn, R., G. Eaton. 1979. Reproductive Physiology and Behavior in Prosimians. Pp. 79-122 in The Study of Prosimian Behavior . New York: Academic Press, Inc..
Wright, P. 2003. Are Tarsiers Silently Leaping into Extinction?. Pp. 296-308 in Tarsiers: The Past, Present, and Future . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
The BayScience Foundation, Inc. 2007. "Zipcode Zoo" (On-line). Tarsius dianae . Accessed May 09, 2007 at http://www.zipcodezoo.com/Animals/T/Tarsius_dianae.asp .