Tmemophlebia coquilletti

Geographic Range

Tmemophlebia coquilletti is a species of bee fly that is widespread across the Nearctic and Neotropical regions, from southern Canada to Brazil.

• Biogeographic Regions
• nearctic nearctic
  • native native
• neotropical neotropical
  • native native

Habitat

The genus Tmemophlebia can be found on or near sand dunes or other sandy, arid, regions.

• Habitat Regions
• temperate temperate
• tropical tropical
• terrestrial terrestrial

• Terrestrial Biomes
• desert or dune desert or dune
• savanna or grassland savanna or grassland

Physical Description

Tmemophlebia coquilletti is a grey species with whitish pollinosity (powdery appearance.) It has a long proboscis in relation to the size of the body. Antenna are above the proboscis in close proximity, jutting out between the compound eyes perpendicularly. Its wings are slightly milky with pale veins. Males have a yellow to brown femora basally. The females have an upper “H” pattern on the legs. The posterior portion of the head is short and wide. This species is usually smaller, ranging between 1.5 to 3.5 mm. The males have a subglobular epandrium (sex organ) with sclerotized villi on the dorsal surface.

• Other Physical Features
• ectothermic ectothermic
• heterothermic heterothermic
• bilateral symmetry bilateral symmetry

• Sexual Dimorphism
• sexes colored or patterned differently

Development

Bombyliidae are holometabolous and develop through hypermetamorphosis in which the first instar planidium differ morphologically from the other larval instars. This larval stage is active and adapted for dispersal. The planidium is elongate, has two long setae and fleshy pseudopods at the apex of the abdomen and a pair of long setae on each thoracic segment for movement. It penetrates the host's nest, then turns into a sedentary parasitoid within the host. The common hosts of Tmemophlebia coquilletti are moths of the families Gelechiidae and Tortricidae . Endoparasitic Bombyliidae like T. coquilletti consume the body of the host after it has pupated. The pupa is equipped with spines and hairs on the head, thorax and abdomen, used to drill out of the dorsal side of the host, where it leaves a relatively wide integument hole. The pupae emerges from the nest, and then emerges from pupation as a flying adult equipped with sex organs.

• Development - Life Cycle
• metamorphosis metamorphosis

Reproduction

Female Bombyliidae fly to elevated landmarks solely for the purpose of mating with males that have aggregated there. This phenomena is known as hilltopping. No interactive courtship behavior was detectable prior to midair coupling to engage in mating. Females are free to choose mates but males have been observed intercepting a female as she flies over him. It is not known whether females can prevent matings after being grabbed. Copulations throughout the Bombyliidae family can last over 100 minutes on average.

Territorial fights between males before choosing a mate involve aerial collisions during which modified spines on the wing margins produce scars on the bodies of opponents. Territory owners and mating males are not different in size or age from the remainder of the male population.

An organ on the end of the female abdomen of almost all bee flies is modified to include a pouch immediately posterior to the genital chamber. The sand chamber pouch is surrounded by elongate setae and enlarged spines. The sand chamber and its associated parts function to gather and hold small particles of substrate which become glued to the eggs. Egg deposition is almost always conducted while hovering. Eggs are laid in a host nest. The number of eggs produced by bee flies is wide ranging, and unknown for this species. Other bee fly species produce anywhere from 100 to 3000 eggs.

• Key Reproductive Features
• seasonal breeding seasonal breeding
• gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
• sexual sexual
• fertilization fertilization
  • internal internal
• oviparous oviparous

There seems to be no known parental investment by male bee flies but there may be a possibility for the storage of nutrient rich ejaculate into the female during copulation. Copulation for Bombyliidae lasts 2 to 15 minutes, providing the potential for transfer of large quantities of sperm or other components into the female for use to develop the eggs. Female investment lies in the energy and resources it invests towards the formation of the zygote and the collecting and gluing of small particles of substrate to eggs before flicking them off her body.

• Parental Investment
• pre-hatching/birth
  • provisioning

Lifespan/Longevity

Tmemophlebia coquilletti adults likely live for about a month.

Behavior

Bee flies are very mobile, hovering or skillfully flying in their adult life. Bee flies are solitary as adults except for the hours when they mate or when males partake in territorial fights. The egg and larva stay in groups on or in the host insect before emerging. Bombyliidae are diurnal and most active in the presence of sunlight.

• Key Behaviors
• flies
• diurnal diurnal
• parasite parasite
• motile motile
• sedentary sedentary

Communication and Perception

Since the eggs of bee flies are laid in the nest and not on the host, the newly hatched offspring are responsible for finding hosts, which requires an actively searching larvae. Such planidiform larvae have evolved independently in families such as Bombyliidae which allows larvae to find hosts inaccessible to adult bee flies. Little is known about the type of perception used for larvae to do so. Adult Diptera often use visual, chemical, and acoustic social communication but more research into the social behaviors of Bombyliidae needs to be done.

• Communication Channels
• visual visual
• acoustic acoustic
• chemical chemical

• Other Communication Modes
• mimicry mimicry

• Perception Channels
• visual visual
• chemical chemical

Food Habits

Bee flies are nectar and pollen feeders as adults. Tmemophlebia coquilletti has been observed feeding on Pitcher's Thistle ( Cirsium pitcheri ) which is a threatened species of the Asteraceae family that grows on the coastal sand dunes of the Great Lakes. Others in the Phthiriinae subfamily are presumed to feed on Asteraceae throughout the Americas as well. Larva and pupa parasitize and feed on an insect host.

• Primary Diet
• herbivore herbivore
  • nectarivore nectarivore

• Animal Foods
• insects

• Plant Foods
• nectar
• pollen

Predation

Bombyliidae demonstrate Batesian mimicry. The coloration, body patterns, and shape of Tmemophlebia coquilletti are similar to certain Hymenoptera , which discourages predators from preying on it. One known predator is insectivorous birds.

• Anti-predator Adaptations
• mimic

Ecosystem Roles

Tmemophlebia is known to parasitize Gelechiidae larvae, which commonly feed on the Douglas-fir ( Pseudotsuga ) and other coniferous fir trees. The Douglas fir is capable of being a pioneer species, affecting the distribution and richness of other surrounding trees and vegetation. This dominant conifer represents a habitat for for birds, bats, and other organisms that eat the Gelechiidae . Tmemophlebia coquilletti can have a negative affect on the population of the Gelechiidae moth which could in turn affect the feeding habits of bats and insectivorous birds in surrounding habitats, but also limit damage to Douglas fir trees.

Tmemophlebia is also known to parasitize Tortricidae moth larvae. This moth family has more than 500 species that feed on fruits, with a large impact on apples. Increased populations of T. coquilletti could have a negative impact on the populations of Tortricidae and therefore would limit the destruction of fruit plants and crops.

Tmemophlebia could also have a positive impact on the Pitcher's Thistle plant ( Cirsium pitcheri ), which is currently endemic to small areas of the Great Lakes coastal dunes. Pollination, specifically by T. coquilletti is of great importance to carry on a stable abundance of the Pitcher's Thistle. The presence and fitness of Tmemophlebia coquilleti has a large impact on many trophic levels in its ecosystem.

• Ecosystem Impact
• pollinates

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

Tmemophlebia coquilletti is a known parasitoid of Tortricidae larvae, which are pests on fruit. Tortricidae have a preference towards apples and represent a threat to the production on apple orchards. Increasing reproduction rates and harnessing the pollination abilities as well as its role as a parasitoid may increase fruit yields.

• Positive Impacts
• controls pest population

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

There are no known adverse effects of Tmemophlebia coquilletti on humans.

Conservation Status

There is an urgent need to document and protect biodiversity in an era when habitats are increasingly threatened. This applies to Tmemophlebia coquilletti and bee flies in general, of which little is known and even fewer efforts are being initiated to conserve and protect species. The extremely small size, elusive flying capabilities and relatively small habitat of Tmemophlebia coquilletti may have been factors to why little is known about this group. This species did not have any special conservation status.

Other Comments

More research needs to be done on reproductive season and more surveying of species distribution within the region and specifically on dune habitats is warranted. The sensitivity of dune habitats to abiotic factors and climate change as well as the ecological importance of T. coquilleti in pollinating endemic plant species suggests a need for focused research.

Additional Links

Encyclopedia of Life

BioKIDS Critter Catalog

Contributors

Jayna Sames (author), University of Michigan Biological Station, Brian Scholtens (editor), University of Michigan Biological Station, Angela Miner (editor), Animal Diversity Web Staff.

References

Bartlett, T. 2013. "Family Bombyliidae - Bee Flies" (On-line). Bug Guide. Accessed August 08, 2013 at http://bugguide.net/node/view/185 .

Chapman, P. 1973. Bionomics of the apple-feeding Tortricidae . Annual Review of Entomology , 18: 73-96.

Feener, D., B. Brown. 1997. Diptera as Parasitoids. Annual Review of Entomology , 2: 73-97.

Kits, J., S. Marshall, N. Evenhuis. 2008. The bee flies ( Diptera : Bombyliidae ) of Ontario, with a key to the species of eastern Canada.. Canadian Journal of Arthropod Identification , 6: 1-52.

McLeod, R. 2012. "Genus Tmemophlebia " (On-line). Bug Guide. Accessed August 08, 2013 at http://bugguide.net/node/view/55387 .

Whelan, C., M. Bowles. 1994. Restoration of Endangered Species: Conceptual Issues, Planning and Implementation . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Yeates, D., G. Dodson. 1990. The Mating System of a Bee Fly ( Diptera : Bombyliidae ). I. Non-Resource-Based Hilltop Territoriality and a Resource-Based Alternative.. Journal of Insect Behavior , 3: 1-15.

Yeates, D., D. Greathead. 1997. The evolutionary pattern of host use in the Bombyliidae ( Diptera ): a diverse family of parasitoid flies. Biological Journal of the Linnean Societ , 60: 149-185.