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Lates calcariferAsian seabass(Also: Giant perch; Palmer)

By Brian Fulton-Howard

Geographic Range

Lates calcarifer, known as barramundi, barramundi perch, giant sea perch, or Asian sea bass, is native to coastal areas in the Indian and Western Pacific Oceans. This includes coastal Australia, Southeast and Eastern Asia, and India (Luna, 2008). According to Luna, this distribution is Indo-West Pacific. (Luna, 2008; UN Fish and Agricultural Organization, 1999)

According to a 2008 study of barramundi from Burma and Australia, these fish may be two species (Ward, 2008). The study used DNA barcoding: the comparison of a particular locus (600 base pairs of the cytochrome c oxidase I gene) on the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). The study found that there was a significant enough difference in the mtDNA of the fish from the two locations that the species L. calcarifer may be split to take these differences into account. The study only examined fish from two locations, so Ward et al. (2008) recommended further study across the range. (Ward, et al., 2008)

Habitat

Barramundi are catadromous, spending most of their life in fresh water and migrating to salt water in order to breed. Smaller fish are found in rivers and streams and larger fish are found in the ocean and estuaries (Pender, 1996; FAO, 1999). There are exceptions to this patter, however, with populations of all sizes of fish found throughout their natural range. Pender and Griffin confirmed through chemical analysis that there are populations that spend their entire life cycle in salt water, in brackish water, or in fresh water (Pender, 1996). Barramundi can survive in a wide range of salinities, but must be introduced slowly to a new salinity to avoid shock (Webster, 2002). Barramundi generally prefer to hide under logs or other objects. (Pender and Griffin, 1996; UN Fish and Agricultural Organization, 1999; Webster and Lim, 2002)

Barramundi are demersal, meaning they spend most of their time near but not on the bottom of a body of water. They are found at depths of ten to forty meters (Luna, 2008). In barramundi fish farming cages are generally placed two meters below the surface (Webster, 2002). (Luna, 2008; Webster and Lim, 2002)

  • Range depth
    40 to 10 m
    131.23 to 32.81 ft

Physical Description

Barramundi are large fish, with a maximum length of over two meters, although they are more commonly around 1.5 meters. Barramundi can have a mass over 55 kilograms. According to the FAO species identification guide, they have a moderately deep, elongate, and compressed body. Barramundi have pointed snouts and large mouths, with jaws extending past the eyes. Nostrils are close together. The dorsal fin is deeply incised, with separate spiny and soft dorsal fins. The spiny dorsal fin has seven to nine spines, and the soft dorsal fin has ten to eleven soft rays. The anal fin has three spines and seven to eight soft rays. Pelvic and pectoral fins are present. These fish have a distinct caudal peduncle, or tail muscle, with a rounded caudal fin. The lateral line extends onto the caudal fin. (UN Fish and Agricultural Organization, 1999)

The scales of barramundi are firmly fixed and ctenoid. Adult barramundi are silver with darker, olive or blue-gray backs. In turbid (cloudy) water, coloration is darker. Juveniles are brown (sometimes grayish-brown) with three white stripes on the head and scattered white spots elsewhere. The markings can be dimmed or may disappear at will. The fins do not have markings. The eyes are golden-brown with a red reflective glow. (UN Fish and Agricultural Organization, 1999)

  • Sexual Dimorphism
  • female larger
  • Average mass
    55 kg
    121.15 lb
  • Range length
    >2 (high) m
    ft
  • Average length
    1.5 m
    4.92 ft

Development

Barramundi are serially hermaphroditic, transforming from male to female at three to eight years of age (FAO, 1999; Guiguen, 1993). Moore (1979) suggests some individuals may not undergo this transition, based on a sex ratio of 3.8 males to 1 female. (Guiguen, et al., 1993; Moore, 1979; Pender and Griffin, 1996; UN Fish and Agricultural Organization, 1999)

Color and markings change from juveniles to adults (see "Physical Description"). (UN Fish and Agricultural Organization, 1999)

Reproduction

Barramundi spawn seasonally (Moore, 1982). Since they are broadcast spawners (Luna, 2008; Moore, 1982), it can be inferred that there is very little social interaction among individuals. Males and females congregate for the purpose of spawning. Spawning events tend to take place at the mouths of estuaries on or near a full moon, after which tides draw the eggs up into the estuaries (Luna, 2008). (Luna, 2008; Moore, 1982)

Lates calcarifer is catadromous; migrating to the mouths of rivers and estuaries in order to breed (FAO, 1999; Moore, 1982; Webster, 2002; Pender, 1996; Russel; 1985). According to Moore, the eggs of fish not exposed to high salinity water do not develop fully, however, Pender and Griffen (1996) concluded that there are populations that spend their entire life cycles in freshwater, estuarine, or saltwater environments, so there may be exceptions to the requirement for high salinities. (Moore, 1982; Pender and Griffin, 1996; Russell and Garrett, 1985; UN Fish and Agricultural Organization, 1999; Webster and Lim, 2002)

There is one spawning season per year towards the end of the dry season and the beginning of the rainy season in the period from October to February (Moore, 1982). Females carry from 2.3 to 32.2 million eggs and can either shed them all at once or as little as 10% at a time (Moore, 1982). Because Lates calcarifer is a broadcast breeder, it can be inferred that there is little interaction between males and females. However, barramundi tend to spawn around the full moon, when tides will carry the eggs back into estuaries (Luna, 2008). (Luna, 2008; Moore, 1982)

Lates calcarifer is serially hermaphroditic with males reaching maturity at 37 to 72 cm and changing into females starting at 73 cm, at around five years, three to five years, or six to eight years depending on the source (Moore, 1979, FAO, 1999; Guiguen, 1993). According to Guiguen (1993) males mature at three to five years, but this study was conducted in cage farmed fish, which may have different maturation times than wild fish. Some male specimens do get larger than 73 cm. The transition from male to female is short, lasting as little as a week, and may not occur in all individuals according to Moore (1979). (Guiguen, et al., 1993; Moore, 1979; UN Fish and Agricultural Organization, 1999)

Chemical levels in the scales of fish from southern Papua New Guinea have indicated that adult barramundi do not always migrate to breeding grounds to spawn, with a lifetime non-participation rate of as much as 50% (Milton, 2005). (Milton and Chenery, 2005)

  • Breeding interval
    Breeding occurs once yearly in barramundi
  • Breeding season
    Breeding generally occurs from October to February.
  • Range number of offspring
    2,300,000 to 32,200,000
  • Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
    2 to 8 years
  • Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
    3 to 5 years

Lates calcarifer is a nonguarding species; there is no parental involvement in the development of fry and juvenile fish (Luna, 2008). (Luna, 2008)

  • Parental Investment
  • no parental involvement
  • pre-fertilization
    • provisioning
    • protecting
      • female

Lifespan/Longevity

Little is known about longevity of barramundi.

Behavior

Catadromous barramundi populations move seasonally between breeding and feeding grounds. Immediately after hatching as plankton, Lates calcarifer larvae make their way from the mouths of estuaries into brackish or freshwater swamps or mangroves where they are protected from predators. The developing fish tend to stay in the swamps from February to April, before moving into permanent tidal creeks for another nine months. After the nine months have past, juvenile barramundi make their way into freshwater estuaries to further develop (Russel, 1985). Barramundi return to the mouths of the estuaries to breed (Moore, 1982). Barramundi are found alone or in small groups, they may school in feeding aggregations when feeding on schools of smaller bait fish. (Davis, 1985)

Home Range

Individuals are mostly solitary and may defend territories near submerged structures that they use as hiding spots. (Moore, 1982; Russell and Garrett, 1985)

Communication and Perception

All bony fishes have lateral lines which can be used to sense pressure and to judge underwater currents and localized movements in the water. The barramundi lateral line extends onto the caudal fin. Barramundi have reflective eyes which allow them to see better in dark conditions. Barramundi also have a sense of smell. Modes of communication in barramundi are poorly understood. (UN Fish and Agricultural Organization, 1999)

Food Habits

Barramundi are opportunistic predators. They eat microcrustaceans such as copepods and amphipods as juvenile fish under 40 mm. As larger juveniles they eat macrocrustaceans like Penaeidae and Palaemonidae. These crustacean prey are found mainly near the bottom of the water column, so this diet also protects juveniles from most of their predators, which hunt closer to the water surface. Mollusks are consumed to a lesser degree. When barramundi are around 80 mm, they begin to eat macrocrustaceans and pelagic bony fishes. Larger fish have diets of around 80% bony fish. Barramundi swallow their food whole, sucking their prey into their fairly large mouths. Moderate cannibalism is fairly common in barramundi (Davis, 1985). (Davis, 1985)

  • Animal Foods
  • fish
  • insects
  • mollusks
  • aquatic crustaceans
  • other marine invertebrates
  • zooplankton

Predation

Although barramundi are opportunistic predators (Davis, 1985), they are also a prey species. The patterns present on the scales of juvenile barramundi (FAO, 1999), in combination with the fact that juveniles reside in protected mangroves and swamps (Moore, 1982; Russell, 1985; and FAO, 1999) suggests a need to protect against predators. There are several species that have been found to prey on juvenile barramundi. In an analysis of stomach contents Davis (1985) demonstrated that barramundi over 40 mm consume juvenile barramundi as part of their diet. Australian pelicans (Pelecanus conspicillatus) (Hitchcock, 2007) and file snakes (Acrochordus arafurae) (Shine, 1986) feed on both juvenile and adult barramundi. (Davis, 1985; Hitchcock, 2007; Luna, 2008; Moore, 1982; Russell and Garrett, 1985; Shine, 1986; UN Fish and Agricultural Organization, 1999)

  • Anti-predator Adaptations
  • cryptic

Ecosystem Roles

Barramundi are predators and prey (Davis, 1985; Hitchcock, 2007; and Shine, 1986). They help support pelicans and file snakes, among other possible predators, as well as controlling the populations species on which they prey. (Davis, 1985; Hitchcock, 2007; Shine, 1986)

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

Barramundi are valuable both as recreational and commercial fish, with a high, fairly stable price (Luna, 2008). They are stocked in lakes and ponds for recreational fishing and are also fished in freshwater creeks and estuaries (Morgan, 2004). Barramundi are heavily farmed in cages, as well as in freshwater and saltwater ponds (Webster, 2002). Worldwide capture peaked in 2000 at 74,207 metric tonnes and declined to 57,074 tonnes caught in 2005 (FAO, 2008; but see Webster, 2002). Aquaculture of barramundi has grown rapidly with 1646 tonnes (4,357,000 USD) produced in 1984, 18,564 tonnes (70,720,000 USD) produced in 1994, and 30,970 tonnes (79,034,000 USD) produced in 2005. (Luna, 2008; Morgan, et al., 2004; UN Fish and Agricultural Organization, 2008; Webster and Lim, 2002)

Since it is a white fish with delicate flavor, barramundi is also becoming popular in the United States. As of 2006, the indoor fish farming interest Australis, based in Massachusetts, was shipping 40,000 lbs of fish per week (Pierce, 2006). (Pierce, 2006)

  • Positive Impacts
  • food

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

Although barramundi have not been shown to have any negative impacts, as large piscivores, they have the potential to kill off prey species if introduced into a non-native habitat. Nile Perch (Lates niloticus), are related to barramundi and are responsible for extinctions of native cichlids in Lake Victoria after having been introduced there (Morgan, 2004). According to Morgan et al. (2004), barramundi have limited potential to cause the same problems if introduced into Lake Kununurra in Western Australia. (Morgan, et al., 2004)

Conservation Status

This species is not listed as threatened or endangered by any international organization.

Contributors

Tanya Dewey (editor), Animal Diversity Web.

Brian Fulton-Howard (author), University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Kevin Omland (editor, instructor), University of Maryland, Baltimore County.

Glossary

Pacific Ocean

body of water between the southern ocean (above 60 degrees south latitude), Australia, Asia, and the western hemisphere. This is the world's largest ocean, covering about 28% of the world's surface.

World Map

acoustic

uses sound to communicate

bilateral symmetry

having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.

brackish water

areas with salty water, usually in coastal marshes and estuaries.

carnivore

an animal that mainly eats meat

chemical

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

coastal

the nearshore aquatic habitats near a coast, or shoreline.

cryptic

having markings, coloration, shapes, or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment; being difficult to see or otherwise detect.

ectothermic

animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature

estuarine

an area where a freshwater river meets the ocean and tidal influences result in fluctuations in salinity.

external fertilization

fertilization takes place outside the female's body

fertilization

union of egg and spermatozoan

food

A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.

freshwater

mainly lives in water that is not salty.

heterothermic

having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature.

iteroparous

offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).

metamorphosis

A large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows. In insects, "incomplete metamorphosis" is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form, and "complete metamorphosis" is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms. Butterflies have complete metamorphosis, grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis.

migratory

makes seasonal movements between breeding and wintering grounds

molluscivore

eats mollusks, members of Phylum Mollusca

motile

having the capacity to move from one place to another.

natatorial

specialized for swimming

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

oviparous

reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.

piscivore

an animal that mainly eats fish

polygynandrous

the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males, each of which also pairs with several different females.

protandrous

condition of hermaphroditic animals (and plants) in which the male organs and their products appear before the female organs and their products

saltwater or marine

mainly lives in oceans, seas, or other bodies of salt water.

seasonal breeding

breeding is confined to a particular season

sexual

reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female

social

associates with others of its species; forms social groups.

solitary

lives alone

tactile

uses touch to communicate

territorial

defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement

tropical

the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.

vibrations

movements of a hard surface that are produced by animals as signals to others

visual

uses sight to communicate

zooplankton

animal constituent of plankton; mainly small crustaceans and fish larvae. (Compare to phytoplankton.)

References

Davis, T. 1985. The food of barramundi, Lates calcarifer (Bloch), in coastal and inland waters of Van Diemen Gulf and the Gulf of Carpentaria, Australia. Journal of fish biology, 26/6: 669-682.

Guiguen, Y., C. Cauty, A. Fostier, J. Fuchs, B. Jalabert. 1993. Reproductive cycle and sex inversion of the seabass, Lates calcarifer, reared in sea cages in French Polynesia: histological and morphometric description. Environmental Biology of Fishes, 39/3: 231-247. Accessed April 15, 2008 at http://www.springerlink.com/content/k0n50155122gp740/.

Hitchcock, G. 2007. Diet of the Australian Pelican Pelecanus conspicillatus breeding at Kerr Islet, North-Western Torres Strait. The Sunbird, 37/1: 23-27.

Luna, S. 2008. "Lates calcarifer, Barramundi: fisheries, aquaculture, gamefish, aquarium:" (On-line). FishBase. Accessed April 02, 2008 at http://fishbase.sinica.edu.tw/summary/speciessummary.php?genusname=Lates&speciesname=calcarifer.

Milton, D., S. Chenery. 2005. Movement patterns of barramundi Lates calcarifer, inferred from super(87)Sr/ super(86)Sr and Sr/Ca ratios in otoliths, indicate non-participation in spawning. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 301: 279-291.

Moore, R. 1979. Natural Sex Inversion in the Giant Perch (Lates calcarifer). Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 30/6: 803-813. Accessed April 15, 2008 at http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/MF9790803.htm.

Moore, R. 1982. Spawning and early life history of burramundi, Lates calcarifer (Bloch), in Papua New Guinea. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 33/4: 647-661. Accessed April 16, 2008 at http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/MF9820647.htm.

Morgan, D., A. Rowland, H. Gill, R. Doupé. 2004. The implications of introducing a large piscivore (Lates calcarifer) into a regulated northern Australian river (Lake Kununurra, Western Australia).. Lakes & Reservoirs: Research & Management, 9/.75: 181-193. Accessed April 09, 2008 at http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=15349144&site=ehost-live.

Pender, P., R. Griffin. 1996. Habitat History of Barramundi Lates calcarifer in a North Australian River System Based on Barium and Strontium Levels in Scales. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 125: 679–689. Accessed April 08, 2008 at http://afs.allenpress.com/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1577%2F1548-8659(1996)125%3C0679:HHOBCI%3E2.3.CO%3B2&ct=1.

Pierce, C. 2006. The Next Big Fish. The Boston Globe Magazine. Accessed April 22, 2008 at http://www.australis.us/pdf/Boston_Globe_reprint_2006_11_26.pdf.

Robins, J., D. Mayer, J. Staunton-Smith, I. Halliday, B. Sawynok, M. Sellin. 2006. Variable growth rates of the tropical estuarine fish barramundi Lates calcarifer (Bloch) under different freshwater flow conditions. Journal of Fish Biology, 69/2: 379-391. Accessed April 07, 2008 at http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=21667869&site=ehost-live.

Russell, D., R. Garrett. 1985. Early life history of barramundi, Lates calcarifer (Bloch), in north-eastern Queensland. Australian journal of marine and freshwater research, 36/2: 191/201.

Shine, R. 1986. Ecology of a Low-Energy Specialist: Food Habits and Reproductive Biology of the Arafura Filesnake (Acrochordidae). Copeia, 1986/2: 424-437. Accessed April 22, 2008 at http://www.jstor.org/pss/1445000.

UN Fish and Agricultural Organization, 1999. FAO SPECIES IDENTIFICATION GUIDE FOR FISHERY PURPOSES: THE LIVING MARINE RESOURCES OF THE WESTERN CENTRAL PACIFIC; Volume 4 Bony fishes part 2 (Mugilidae to Carangidae). Rome, Italy: Publications Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Accessed April 09, 2008 at http://203.158.191.28/kosin/data/fao_v4/x2400e33.pdf.

UN Fish and Agricultural Organization, 2008. "Barramundi(=Giant seaperch) - Lates calcarifer" (On-line). FAO Fisheries & Aquaculture - Species fact sheets. Accessed April 30, 2008 at http://www.fao.org/fishery/species/3068.

Ward, R., B. Holmes, G. Yearsley. 2008. DNA barcoding reveals a likely second species of Asian sea bass (barramundi) (Lates calcarifer). Journal of Fish Biology, 72/2: 458–463. Accessed April 07, 2008 at http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1095-8649.2007.01703.x.

Webster, C., C. Lim. 2002. Nutrient Requirements and Feeding of Finfish for Aquaculture. Wallingford, Oxon; New York, NY: CABI Publishing. Accessed April 09, 2008 at http://books.google.com/books?lr=&id=9Vohcd0lSJQC.

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