Geographic Range
The natural distribution of European hares includes Great Britain and western Europe,
east to through the Middle East to Central Asia (Lincoln, 1974; Broekhuizen and Maaskamp,
1980; Caillol and Meunier, 1989; Poli
et al
., 1991). They have been introduced by humans to several other continents. In Canada,
Lepus europaeus
is found in southern Ontario, around the Great Lakes, and south of the Canadian Shield.
It has failed to spread further north. In the United States, European hares are now
found in the north-eastern states and around the Great Lakes (Hall and Kelson, 1959).
They have also been introduced to areas of South and Central America (Bonino and Montenegro,
1997) and Australia.
- Biogeographic Regions
- nearctic
- palearctic
- neotropical
- australian
Habitat
European hares prefer open fields and pastures bordered by hedgerows and woodlots,
often around agriculture fields and crops. They live in shallow forms; clumps of
grass, weeds, or bush (Peterson, 1966; Bansfield, 1974; William and Whitaker, 1943).
- Habitat Regions
- temperate
- terrestrial
- Terrestrial Biomes
- savanna or grassland
- Other Habitat Features
- agricultural
Physical Description
Total length: 600-750 (average 680) mm; Ear length, from notch: 94-102 (av. 98) mm;
Tail: 72-110 (av. 95) mm; Hind foot: 142-161 (av. 151) mm; Skull length: 96-104 (av.
100) mm; Skull width: 44-51 (av. 47.3) mm (Peterson, 1966; Hall and Kelson, 1959).
They have long ears with black tips and which are greyish white inside. The pelage
is yellowish-brown to greyish-brown, with a greyish-white underbody. The face is
brown, with eye rings. The tail is black on the top and white on the bottom. In
winter,
L. europaeus
doesn't change its pelage to white, but does become slightly more grey (Peterson,
1966; Bansfields, 1974; Dragg, 1974). There is no noted sexual dimorphism. The skull
features short, broad, heavy nasal bones, and prominent anterior and posterior lobes
of the supraorbital processes. It also often has a prominent subcutaneous process
of the lacrimal bone, projecting from the anterior wall of the orbit (Bansfield, 1974).
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- homoiothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- sexes alike
Reproduction
The breeding season for
L. europaeus
is between midwinter (January/February) and midsummer. The gestation period is between
30 and 42 days (Bansfield, 1974; Peterson, 1966). There is a high in-utero reabsorbtion
rate; 7% in the spring to 25% in the autumn (Bansfield, 1974). Litter size varies
between 1 and 8, the average being 3 to 5 (William and Whitaker, 1943; Bansfield,
1974). There are two to several litters a season. The weaning period is said to be
about one month (Broekhuizen and Maaskamp, 1980; Bansfield, 1974). The young, called
leverets, reach sexual maturity at eight months to a year in age. During autumn, the
male's gonads and reproductive tract are regressed and plasma levels of testosterone
and luteinizing hormone are low. In females, luteinizing hormone basal levels are
at a maximum in July, the end of the reproductive season (Caillol and Meunier, 1989).
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- seasonal breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- viviparous
Leverets are precocial at birth, with long and silky fur (Peterson, 1966). To protect
leverets, the mother disperses them over a moderately wide area to avoid predation
on the whole litter. The mother then makes the rounds to nurse them (Bansfield, 1974).
- Parental Investment
- precocial
-
pre-fertilization
- provisioning
-
protecting
- female
-
pre-hatching/birth
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-weaning/fledging
-
provisioning
- female
-
provisioning
Lifespan/Longevity
Behavior
European hares are mainly solitary animals except during mating season. They are crepuscular
and nocturnal, mostly foraging at night (between 7 p.m. and 7 a.m.). European hares
remain active all year round. During the day they crouch in a depression called a
'form', partially concealed with their back showing (Bansfield, 1974). European hares
posess an excellent sense of sight, smell, and hearing. Upon detection of a predator,
European hares will run to escape, and can dodge and change direction quickly if needed.
They are very fast and have been clocked at up to 35 mph (about 60 kph) running in
a straight line. They will also dive into streams if needed as they are decent swimmers
(William and Whitaker; Bansfield, 1974).
- Key Behaviors
- terricolous
- saltatorial
- nocturnal
- motile
- sedentary
- solitary
Home Range
There is little evidence to suggest that
L. europaeus
stays within a restricted home range.
Communication and Perception
European hares are usually quiet animals. They make low grunts from time to time and
"guttural" calls from the doe (female) to her leverets. It has been suggested that
European hares grind their teeth as an alarm call. They also emit a shrill call
when hurt or caught (Peterson, 1966; Bansfield, 1974).
Food Habits
European hares are herbivorous, eating grasses, herbs, and field crops during summer.
During winter European hares feed on twigs, buds, shrub bark, small trees, and young
fruit tree bark. They also commonly re-ingest their green, soft fecal pellets. This
is known as coprophagia. Two or three adult
L. europaeus
can eat as much vegetation as one sheep (Banfield, 1974; William and Whitaker, 1943;
Peterson, 1966).
- Primary Diet
- herbivore
- coprophage
- Plant Foods
- leaves
- wood, bark, or stems
- Other Foods
- dung
Predation
Known predators include red foxes, wolves, coyotes (in their introduced range in North
America), wild cats, larger hawks, and owls (Bansfield, 1974).
- Anti-predator Adaptations
- cryptic
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
European hares have become an important and challenging game animal, especially in
North America. The meat is said to be white and delicious (William and Whitaker, 1943;
Bansfield, 1974).
- Positive Impacts
- food
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
In some areas, such as Argentina, Australia and, to a lesser extent, North America,
L. europaeus
is a pest. The problem lies in its quick reproduction and devastation to agriculture,
especially young apple orchards (Bonino and Montenegro, 1997; Bansfield, 1974; William
and Whitaker, 1943).
- Negative Impacts
- crop pest
- causes or carries domestic animal disease
Conservation Status
European hares are widespread throughout Europe, where they are called common hares.
European hares have done well in North America, with population numbers quickly rising
to the current density. In Ontario population density has been as high as 100 per
square mile, and has leveled to about 25 per square mile (Bansfield, 1974; Dragg,
1974). In recent decades there have been outbreaks of increased mortality due to
disease, particularly in Europe. This syndrome includes acute hepatosis, enteritis,
nephrosis, general jaundice, congestion, and hemorrhage of internal organs, and has
been called European Brown Hare Syndrome (Poli
et al
., 1991).
Other Comments
Lepus europaeus
is native to Europe and South Asia, and was introduced everywhere else it is presently
found. For example, it was introduced to Ontario in 1912, from Germany, and in New
York State in 1893, and has been a successful game animal ever since (Dragg, 1974;
William and Whitaker, 1943). In other countries such as Australia and Argentina,
L. europaeus
is a huge pest, with introduction resulting in agricultural disaster (Dragg, 1974;
Bonino and Montenegro, 1997). Other common names for the European hare: common hare,
brown hare (Caillol and Meunier, 1989; Poli
et al
., 1991)
Additional Links
Contributors
Alan Vu (author), University of Toronto.
- Nearctic
-
living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.
- introduced
-
referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.
- Palearctic
-
living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Neotropical
-
living in the southern part of the New World. In other words, Central and South America.
- introduced
-
referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.
- Australian
-
Living in Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, New Guinea and associated islands.
- introduced
-
referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.
- temperate
-
that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).
- terrestrial
-
Living on the ground.
- tropical savanna and grassland
-
A terrestrial biome. Savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy. Extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical Africa and South America, and in Australia.
- savanna
-
A grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees, a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest. See also Tropical savanna and grassland biome.
- temperate grassland
-
A terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes (>23.5° N or S latitude). Vegetation is made up mostly of grasses, the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available. Fire and grazing are important in the long-term maintenance of grasslands.
- agricultural
-
living in landscapes dominated by human agriculture.
- endothermic
-
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- seasonal breeding
-
breeding is confined to a particular season
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- viviparous
-
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female.
- young precocial
-
young are relatively well-developed when born
- saltatorial
-
specialized for leaping or bounding locomotion; jumps or hops.
- nocturnal
-
active during the night
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- sedentary
-
remains in the same area
- solitary
-
lives alone
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- cryptic
-
having markings, coloration, shapes, or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment; being difficult to see or otherwise detect.
- food
-
A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.
- causes or carries domestic animal disease
-
either directly causes, or indirectly transmits, a disease to a domestic animal
- herbivore
-
An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.
- folivore
-
an animal that mainly eats leaves.
- coprophage
-
an animal that mainly eats the dung of other animals
References
Bansfield, A. 1974. Mammals of Canada . Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Bonino, N., A. Montenegro. 1997. Reproduction of the European hare in Pantagonia, Argentina. Acta Theriologica , 42(1): 47-54.
Broekhuizen, S., F. Maaskamp. 1980. Behaviour of does and leverets of the European hare (Lepus europaeus) whilst nursing. J. Zool. Lond. , 191: 487-501.
Caillol, M., M. Meunier, M. Mondain-Monval, P. Simon. 1988. Seasonal variations in testis size, testosterone and LH basal levels, and pituitary response to luteinizing hormone releasing hormone in the brown hare, Lepus europaeus. Can. J. Zool. , 67: 1626-1630.
Dragg, A. 1974. Mammals of Ontario . Waterloo, Ontario: Otter Press.
Hall, E., K. Kelson. 1959. Mammals of North America . New York: The Ronald Press Co..
Hamilton, W., J. Whitaker. 1943. Mammals of the Eastern United States. 2nd ed . Ithica, NY: Cornell University Press.
Lincoln, G. 1974. Reproduction and March madness in the Brown hare, Lepus europaeus. J. Zool. Lond. , 174: 1-14.
Peterson, R. 1966. The Mammals of Eastern Canada . Oxford University Press.
Poli, A., M. Nigro, D. Gallazi, G. Sironi, A. Lavazza. 1991. Acute hepatosis in the european brown hare (Lepus europaeus) in Italy. Journal of Wildlife Diseases , 27(4): 621-629.