Geographic Range
Skylarks are native to North Africa, Asia, and Europe. British populations do not
migrate, but populations from eastern Asia migrate to southeastern China and populations
in the eastern Palearctic migrate to the northern Mediterranean. Skylarks have been
introduced to Australia, Canada, Hawaii, and New Zealand.
- Biogeographic Regions
- nearctic
- palearctic
- australian
- oceanic islands
- pacific ocean
Habitat
Skylarks live in areas of open country. They are generally found living in extensive
croplands, marshes, or meadows. They prefer to live among cereal grasses or low green
herbage. Skylarks avoid wooded areas, even areas with isolated trees seem to be unsuitable.
Skylarks feed, nest, and do most other activities on the ground.
- Habitat Regions
- temperate
- terrestrial
- Terrestrial Biomes
- savanna or grassland
- Wetlands
- marsh
- Other Habitat Features
- agricultural
Physical Description
The sexes are alike in the plumage, but males are slightly larger. Skylarks usually
range in size from 18-19 cm. They have a wing-span of 30-36 cm. Females of the species
can weight 17-47 g, while males can weigh 27-55 g. Their bills are short but strong.
Skylarks generally have streaked black-brown plumage, some have a yellow or grey overall
tone. Their underside is a buff-white. Skylarks have brown-streaked crown feathers
that can be raised to a small crest.
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- homoiothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- male larger
Reproduction
Male skylarks sing throughout the day, starting in the dawn hours. The song is mostly
heard February through July, but a more faint song can be heard throughout the rest
of the year. They usually begin their song after flying into the air 10-20 m. They
then progress to flying 50-100 m up, then slowly spiral down with periods of hovering
in the air. This can proceed for 10-15 minutes. The song itself usually consists
of singing trills and cadenzas along with babbling and mimicry. It is used as a
display to attract females.
Skylarks pair early in the year between April and July. Courting may include high-speed
chases in the air and their renowned singing behaviors. The birds are monogamous
but only about half of mating pairs remain together after a year.
- Mating System
- monogamous
- cooperative breeder
Skylark nests are often found near short vegetation and consist of a shallow depression
in the ground. The depression is lined with stems and leaves, and the inner part
is lined with finer materials like hair. The nest is built primarily by the female,
although the male may help to form the depression in the ground. Skylarks lay 3-4,
sometimes 5, eggs.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- seasonal breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- oviparous
Females build the nest with little help from males. Once the young are hatched both
parents care for them. Adults gather food for the young by making a pile of insects
on the ground. When enough insects are collected, they are carried away to young and
the soft parts are fed to them. Females incubate eggs for a period of 11-14 days.
Both males and females protect the nest. Hatchlings leave the nest between 8-10 days
after they hatch. Skylarks often have two, and sometimes three, broods each season.
- Parental Investment
-
pre-fertilization
- provisioning
-
protecting
- female
-
pre-hatching/birth
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- male
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-weaning/fledging
-
provisioning
- male
- female
-
protecting
- male
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-independence
-
protecting
- male
- female
-
protecting
Lifespan/Longevity
The annual mortality rate for adult skylarks was measured as 33.5% in England. One
skylark was documented as living to 8 years 5 months old.
Behavior
Skylarks forage on the ground. They walk around, and can be found pecking at plant
stalks and seed heads. Territorial aggression usually increases from February and
peaks in April, but by July aggression is mostly absent. The aggression is displayed
on the ground in the form of ruffled feathers, a raised crown, and threatening acts
of aggression like fluttering off the ground with wings half-spread. Aggressive interactions
over territory can also be aerial. This consists of a series of upward glides with
intermitted fluttering towards an invader.
Skylarks often migrate in flocks and large flocks of skylarks can be found during
severe weather. Flocks often do not consist of more than 10 individuals and if they
do, they often break apart into smaller flocks.
Home Range
There is no available information on home range size in skylarks.
Communication and Perception
Male skylarks are more vocal than females. Skylarks are known for the complex songs
employed by males. Song flight usually begins with a silent ascent. When they reach
an altitude of 50-100 m they begin to hover and circle over territory while continuing
to sing. They then begin a spiral descent and cease to sing once 10-20 m are reached.
The song itself consists of loud,
trli
or
dji
whistles in varying pitch patterns. Frequent repetition occurs as well as trills
and tremolos with varying speed, pitch, length, and timbre. Skylarks may also sing
on the ground with much the same singing pattern but often quieter, shorter, and consisting
of more warbling and pauses.
Skylarks also communicate through a dry
chirrup
,
prriee
and
prreet
call.
Food Habits
Skylarks are omnivores that eat seeds and insects. Skylarks are known to eat weed
seeds and waste grain. They also eat invertebrates such as beetles, caterpillars,
spiders, millipedes, earthworms, and slugs. They forage on the ground, searching for
food visually.
- Primary Diet
- omnivore
- Animal Foods
- insects
- terrestrial non-insect arthropods
- mollusks
- terrestrial worms
- Plant Foods
- seeds, grains, and nuts
Predation
Small falcons (
Falco
) prey on adult skylarks, but these predators are not common. Nestlings and eggs are
taken by ground-dwelling predators, such as foxes (
Vulpes
) and snakes (
Serpentes
). Humans used to prey upon these birds, capturing them in clap-nets and selling them.
This greatly reduced their numbers, but the practice has since been prohibited in
England. Skylarks are cryptically colored, helping to camouflage them as they search
for prey on the ground.
- Anti-predator Adaptations
- cryptic
Ecosystem Roles
Skylarks eat pests such as caterpillars and weed seeds that are detrimental to crops.
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Skylarks consume the seeds of weeds and detrimental plants as well as detrimental
insects. This is advantageous to farmers.
- Positive Impacts
- controls pest population
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Skylarks are known to ravage spring cabbage plants and consume corn and other crops
cultivated by humans. The advantage of skylarks consuming pests and weed seeds outweighs
the disadvantage of their taste for certain crops.
- Negative Impacts
- crop pest
Conservation Status
The population size of skylarks introduced in North America is declining due to development
in their habitats. Skylarks in Europe, Asia, Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii are
stable. In some areas agricultural practices, and loss of open grasslands and farmlands
does threaten skylark populations.
Additional Links
Contributors
Tanya Dewey (editor), Animal Diversity Web.
David Hyman (author), Kalamazoo College, Ann Fraser (editor, instructor), Kalamazoo College.
- Nearctic
-
living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.
- introduced
-
referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.
- Palearctic
-
living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Australian
-
Living in Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, New Guinea and associated islands.
- introduced
-
referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.
- oceanic islands
-
islands that are not part of continental shelf areas, they are not, and have never been, connected to a continental land mass, most typically these are volcanic islands.
- introduced
-
referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.
- Pacific Ocean
-
body of water between the southern ocean (above 60 degrees south latitude), Australia, Asia, and the western hemisphere. This is the world's largest ocean, covering about 28% of the world's surface.
- introduced
-
referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.
- temperate
-
that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).
- terrestrial
-
Living on the ground.
- tropical savanna and grassland
-
A terrestrial biome. Savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy. Extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical Africa and South America, and in Australia.
- savanna
-
A grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees, a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest. See also Tropical savanna and grassland biome.
- temperate grassland
-
A terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes (>23.5° N or S latitude). Vegetation is made up mostly of grasses, the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available. Fire and grazing are important in the long-term maintenance of grasslands.
- marsh
-
marshes are wetland areas often dominated by grasses and reeds.
- agricultural
-
living in landscapes dominated by human agriculture.
- endothermic
-
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- monogamous
-
Having one mate at a time.
- cooperative breeder
-
helpers provide assistance in raising young that are not their own
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- seasonal breeding
-
breeding is confined to a particular season
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- oviparous
-
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.
- diurnal
-
- active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- migratory
-
makes seasonal movements between breeding and wintering grounds
- sedentary
-
remains in the same area
- solitary
-
lives alone
- territorial
-
defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- cryptic
-
having markings, coloration, shapes, or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment; being difficult to see or otherwise detect.
- omnivore
-
an animal that mainly eats all kinds of things, including plants and animals
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
References
Bannerman, D. 1953. Skylark. Pp. 33-40 in The Birds of the British Isles , Vol. 11. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.
Bruun, B., H. Delin, L. Svensson. 1992. Birds of Britain and Europe . London: Hamlyn.
Cramp, S. 1988. Alauda arvensis. Pp. 188-205 in Handbook of the birds of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa:the birds of the Western Palearctic , Vol. V, 1 Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Grzimek, B. 2003. Family: Larks. Pp. 353-354 in Grzimek's Encyclopedia of Animals , Vol. 2, 2nd Edition. Detroit: Gale.
Harrison, C. 1982. An Atlas of the Birds of the Western Palaearctic . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Jonsson, L. 1992. Birds of Europe with North America and the Middle East . London: A & C Black.