Apeltes quadracus

Geographic Range

Fourspine sticklebacks ( Apeltes quadracus ) inhabit coastal areas of North America, from the Gulf of St. Lawrence south to the Trent River drainage in North Carolina. This species is particularly abundant along the coast of New York. A few populations have been observed upstream in the Hudson, Delaware and Susquehanna drainages. One lake in Maine was found to contain A. quadracus in low abundance, as well as several lakes and streams in Nova Scotia. This species has been introduced by humans into Lake Superior, the Great Swamp in New Jersey and the Avalon Peninsula, Newfoundland.

• Biogeographic Regions
• nearctic nearctic
  • introduced introduced
  • native native
• atlantic ocean atlantic ocean
  • native native

Habitat

Fourspine sticklebacks primarily live in marine waters or estuaries, however they are sometimes found in freshwater lakes. Spawning typically takes place in shallow areas of streams and rivers. This species lives primarily in shallow waters (1 to 35 cm). Apeltes quadracus can be found at mid-depth waters (36 to 70 cm), but not at depths greater than 70 cm. Fourspine sticklebacks prefer vegetated waters, having a higher abundance in marine and estuary habitats containing eel grass. In freshwater habitats, A. quadracus is most commonly found in areas containing Elodea (waterweed).

• Habitat Regions
• temperate temperate
• saltwater or marine saltwater or marine
• freshwater freshwater

• Aquatic Biomes
• pelagic pelagic
• lakes and ponds
• rivers and streams
• coastal coastal
• brackish water brackish water

• Other Habitat Features
• estuarine estuarine

Physical Description

The body of A. quadracus shows moderate lateral compression and there is a slight projection of the lower jaw, making a small snout. Their skin is considered “naked”, lacking scales or ossified plates. Adults are olive-green to brownish olive in color with dark spots on their side and a silver belly. Four isolated spines are located anterior to the dorsal ray, the second two being approximately half the size of the first two. The presence of four dorsal spines differentiates this species from other sticklebacks. During spawning season, the pelvic spine and membrane of males becomes red.

Adults range in length from 51-64 mm

• Other Physical Features
• ectothermic ectothermic
• heterothermic heterothermic
• bilateral symmetry bilateral symmetry

• Sexual Dimorphism
• female larger
• male more colorful

Development

Eggs are approximately 1.5 mm in diameter and amber colored. Hatching occurs approximately six days after spawning, with optimal temperatures being 21 to 22ºC. After hatching, larvae are 4.2 to 4.5 mm in length and dark brown in color. This is followed by a rapid growth period and by day three larvae will reach a length of 6.2 to 6.5 mm.

Reproduction

During the mating season, males develop territories and defend their area by extending their pelvic fins and engaging in head-on attack if necessary. After territory establishment, the male goes through a nest-building phase in which aquatic plant material is collected and “glued” together using a secretion that comes from the vent. As a female approaches, a prod-dance-lead courtship behavior will begin. The male will extend his pelvic fin, swim toward the female and prod her with his snout several times. This is followed by spiral movements toward the nest, a waiting period for the female to follow and then repetition until the nest has been reached. After spawning and fertilization, the male continues to defend his territory, even against the female. He will interruption is protection to occasionally “fan” the nest with his fins, and to build another layer where another clutch of eggs can be laid. This process of layered nest building allows the male to collect as many as four or five clutches of eggs.

• Mating System
• polygynous polygynous

The major breeding season for A. quadracus is in May and June but spawning can occur through the end of July. Males and females migrate to shallow, freshwater systems for reproduction. Females will lay one cluster of 20 to 50 eggs, followed by external fertilization by the male. Sexual maturity is normally reached after one year of development.

• Key Reproductive Features
• iteroparous iteroparous
• seasonal breeding seasonal breeding
• gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
• sexual sexual
• fertilization fertilization
  • external external
• oviparous oviparous

Males are considered to be in the parental phase when fanning increases. Fanning allows A. quadracus to ventilate each clutch of eggs, alternating between levels in intervals. Between fanning periods, males continue to protect the nest. Little to no attention is given young after they hatch and leave the nest. Females are not known to play a role in parental care.

• Parental Investment
• male parental care male parental care
• pre-fertilization
  • provisioning
• pre-hatching/birth
  • protecting
    • male

Lifespan/Longevity

The life span of A. quadracus is two to three years in the wild.

Behavior

Fourspine sticklebacks migrate seasonally for reproduction. Territory size during breeding is variable depending on the quantity and average size of A. quadracus in an area, however their territory must be large enough to acquire vegetation and build a nest (average nest size is 10 to 20 cm in length). These fish are known to swim in sub-populations in which fish associate with similar individuals based on olfactory and habitat cues. Fourspine sticklebacks have a high tolerance for salinity and consume a wide variety of organisms, allowing them to survive in many different habitats.

• Key Behaviors
• natatorial natatorial
• motile motile
• migratory migratory
• social social

Home Range

There is no known documented home range for fourspine sticklebacks.

Communication and Perception

There is little literature on perception in fourspine sticklebacks. Sticklebacks ( Gasterosteidae ) in general typically use chemical cues for predator detection and social interactions. Courtship includes visual and tactile signals. Threespine sticklebacks ( Gasterosteus aculeatus ), a closely related species, use visual cues when choosing a mate, showing a preference for contrasting colors and intense reds. The coloration of males in A. quadracus > suggests similar behavior on this species.

• Communication Channels
• visual visual
• tactile tactile
• chemical chemical

• Perception Channels
• visual visual
• tactile tactile
• vibrations vibrations
• chemical chemical

Food Habits

The diet of A. quadracus typically consists of planktonic plants and animals. Small invertebrates such as aquatic worms, midges, and copepods are commonly found in their gut. Factors such as aquatic vegetation density and predation can shift their dietary habits. Individuals from habitats with dense vegetation consume more prey than those from poorly vegetated habitats. In the presence of predation, these fish show an increase in benthic prey consumption.

• Primary Diet
• planktivore planktivore

• Animal Foods
• aquatic or marine worms
• other marine invertebrates
• zooplankton zooplankton

• Plant Foods
• phytoplankton phytoplankton

Predation

Known predators of A. quadracus includes American eels ( Anguilla rostrate ), killfish ( Fundulus ), and Atlantic tomcod ( Microgadus tomcod ). Sticklebacks ( Gasterosteidae ) avoid predation through camouflage. Their silver bellies help them to go undetected from below and from above, they look like a small stick.

• Anti-predator Adaptations
• cryptic cryptic

Ecosystem Roles

Planktivores serve an important role in the aquatic food web because of their flexibility in diet, habitat, and range of prey size. They are also an important food source for larger fish. Fourspine sticklebacks are known to be hosts to a number of parasites, including monogenetic trematodes ( Gyrodactylus avalonia , Gyrodactylus cameroni and Gyrodactylus canadensis ), digenetic trematodes ( Podocotyle atomon ), cestodes ( Proteocephalus ) and a nematode ( Cystidicola farionis ). Invasion of A. quadracus into Lake Superior negatively affects native fish populations due to habitat and food competition.

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

Fourspine sticklebacks are used for bait and purchased for aquariums. In Europe, sticklebacks ( Gasterosteidae ) are used in small quantities to make fish oil and meal. Occasionally, they are also used in dog food and consumed by humans.

• Positive Impacts
• pet trade pet trade
• food food

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

There are no known adverse economic effects of A. quadracus .

Conservation Status

Fourspine sticklebacks have no known threats and currently are categorized as having low conservation concern.

Additional Links

Encyclopedia of Life

Contributors

Cecelia Smith (author), Indiana University - Purdue University Fort Wayne, Mark Jordan (editor), Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne, George Hammond (editor), Animal Diversity Web Staff.

References

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