Laterallus jamaicensis

Geographic Range

Black rails ( Laterallus jamaicensis ) are Nearctic and Neotropical birds with a geographical range that spans North and South America. In North America, black rails are primarily found along the eastern seaboard and the Gulf Coast. Their range reaches as far north as coastal New Jersey and continues southward along the Atlantic coast through coastal Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas, extending as far south as Florida. Along the Gulf Coast, they range from the western coast of Florida westward through Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and throughout the southeast part of Texas along the Gulf of Mexico. In addition to these coastal areas, black rails are also found in inland regions such as the Great Basin in Nevada and the Central Valley of California. There are two subspecies with distinct geographical ranges. Eastern black rails ( Laterallus jamaicensis jamaicensis ) are found along the eastern coast of the United States, as described for the species. They are also present in the Caribbean and Central America, inhabiting coastal areas in countries such as the Bahamas and Cuba. They are often spotted in the eastern parts of Mexico. California black rails ( Laterallus jamaicensis coturniculus ) inhabit the western United States, particularly in California. Their range includes the Central Valley and coastal marshes in the San Francisco Bay Area. They expand southward into Baja California, Mexico, and are also present in parts of Arizona and Nevada where suitable habitat exists.

• Biogeographic Regions
• nearctic nearctic
  • native native
• neotropical neotropical
  • native native
• oceanic islands oceanic islands
  • native native

Habitat

Black rails inhabit wetlands characterized by dense vegetation, shallow water, and abundant cover, which provides protection from predators and suitable conditions for nesting and feeding. There are two main subspecies, eastern black rails and California black rails, each with distinct habitat preferences.

Eastern black rails are most found in salt and brackish marshes with dense vegetation, including grasses like Spartina and rushes ( Juncus ). These marshes are typically at low elevations, just above sea level, and are subject to tidal influences. Black rails build their nests just above the high-tide line to avoid flooding, often near estuaries, bays, and coastal lagoons. Their preferred elevation is generally between 0 to 1 meter above sea level. This tracks with nesting requirements of water depths from 1 to 6 cm at nest sites.

California black rails inhabit freshwater and brackish or estuarine marshes, particularly those with dense stands of cattails ( Typha ), bulrushes ( Schoenoplectus ), and other emergent vegetation. They occur at elevations ranging from sea level up to about 1,200 meters.

• Habitat Regions
• temperate temperate
• freshwater freshwater

• Aquatic Biomes
• brackish water brackish water

• Wetlands
• marsh marsh

• Other Habitat Features
• estuarine estuarine

Physical Description

Black rails are small, elusive birds with a distinctive appearance. Their heads and the front of their necks are a soft blue-grey, while their backs, including the mantle, nape, and rump, have a warm, rusty hue speckled with white. They short dark bills, and pale pink legs. Males typically have a darker grey throat, while females display a lighter shade.

Their chicks are covered in dark brown down with a glossy, oil-slick sheen, helping them blend into their surroundings. Compared to adults, juveniles have fewer scattered white spots and streaks, and exhibit more cryptic, duller feather colors. This camouflage remains until about three months of age, when they begin developing their adult plumage. Juveniles also possess green eyes at one month of age, grey-green eyes a month later, and red a month after that. Their eyes remain red as adults.

Black rails are endothermic and bilaterally symmetrical. Eastern black rails weigh approximately 35 g on average and are slightly larger than California black rails, which average 29 g. Adult body length ranges from 10–15 cm and wingspan from 22–28 cm.

• Other Physical Features
• endothermic endothermic
• bilateral symmetry bilateral symmetry

• Sexual Dimorphism
• sexes colored or patterned differently

Development

Like other birds, black rails develop within eggs, where embryos grow over a period of incubation before hatching. Once they hatch, black rail chicks are covered in black downy feathers, helping them stay camouflaged within their dense wetland habitats. These precocial hatchlings are highly mobile soon after hatching; they rely on their parents for guidance but are capable of foraging on their own within days.

The exact age at which black rail chicks become fully independent is not well-documented. Given this lack of data, it's difficult to provide exact date ranges for developmental stages. Growth progresses rapidly, with juveniles gradually developing adult plumage and gaining strength for flight. The two main subspecies, eastern black rails and California black rails, follow similar developmental patterns. Both rely on dense vegetation for cover during their vulnerable early stages of life. Their development is closely tied to the availability of suitable nesting sites and food resources. Black rails exhibit determinate growth, progressing from hatchling to juvenile to adult.

Reproduction

Black rails follow a seasonally monogamous mating system, forming strong pair bonds during the breeding season. Mates locate one another primarily through vocalizations, as their secretive nature and dense habitat limit visual contact. Males emit persistent nighttime calls to attract females. Once a female responds, the pair engages in courtship behaviors, including soft vocalizations and following through vegetation. Both partners work together to build a well-hidden nest slightly above ground or water level, concealed within dense wetland plants. This placement helps avoid flooding and reduces the risk of predation.

• Mating System
• monogamous monogamous

Black rails utilize an iteroparous reproductive strategy, meaning they breed multiple times throughout their lifetime. Their breeding season occurs during the spring and summer months, typically between March and July, depending on their geographical location. They are seasonal breeders, with both males and females reaching reproductive maturity at around one year of age. The breeding interval is typically once per year, although some pairs may attempt a second brood if conditions allow. Black rails are oviparous; females each lay between 4 to 13 eggs per season, with a typical clutch size of 6 to 10 eggs. The birth mass for the black rails is 5.0 to 5.5g. These eggs are incubated by both parents for approximately 13 to 20 days, with an average incubation period of 16 days. The female and male black rails’ age of sexual maturity is on average one year. Although mass at hatching is not reported, hatchlings emerge as small, downy chicks that are highly dependent on parental care. The time from hatching to fledging—when the young develop enough feathers to begin flight—ranges from 20 to 35 days, with an average fledging period of around 30 days. After fledging, the chicks remain dependent on their parents for several weeks, reaching full independence within 35 to 50 days.

• Key Reproductive Features
• iteroparous iteroparous
• seasonal breeding seasonal breeding
• gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
• sexual sexual
• oviparous oviparous

Black rails exhibit biparental care, meaning both the male and female contribute to raising the young. Their chicks are precocial, meaning they hatch with their eyes open, covered in down, and can leave the nest within a short period after hatching. However, despite their precocial nature, they still rely on their parents for protection and guidance during their early development. Males assist in incubation, provisioning, and defending the nest from predators Females incubation duties and plays a primary role in brooding the chicks once they hatch. Before fertilization (pre-fertilization), both males and females contribute to nest building, selecting concealed, dense vegetation to ensure the eggs and chicks remain hidden from predators. During pre-hatching/birth, both parents take turns incubating the eggs, with the female and male providing equal care in keeping the eggs warm and safe. Additionally, they both stay alert to potential threats, showcasing protective behaviors to ensure the survival of their offspring. After hatching (pre-weaning/fledging), both parents engage in provisioning by bringing food to the young and leading them to foraging areas. During this period, both the male and female also continue to provide protection, leading the chicks to safety in case of danger and using vocalizations to signal potential threats. Leading up to pre-independence, the chicks gradually become more self-sufficient, but the male and female still offer occasional provisioning by assisting in food location. They also continue protecting their young by keeping them within the safety of dense vegetation until they are fully capable of survival on their own. Their strong parental investment increases chick survival rates, as the young are highly vulnerable to predation and environmental changes.

• Parental Investment
• male parental care male parental care
• female parental care female parental care
• pre-fertilization
  • provisioning
  • protecting
    • male
    • female
• pre-hatching/birth
  • provisioning
    • male
    • female
  • protecting
    • male
    • female
• pre-weaning/fledging
  • provisioning
    • male
    • female
  • protecting
    • male
    • female
• pre-independence
  • provisioning
    • male
    • female
  • protecting
    • male
    • female

Lifespan/Longevity

In the wild, the longest known lifespan for black rails is estimated to be 9 years, with estimates of 5 years for their expected lifespan. However, there are no recorded data on the species’ lifespan in captivity, as black rails are rarely kept under human care.

Black rails’ longevity might be limited by predation and disturbances from human activity.

Behavior

Black rails are primarily nocturnal, staying hidden in thick vegetation during the day and becoming more active at night. Their social behavior is not well-documented, but they are typically solitary or found in pairs, especially during the breeding season. Black rails are not strong fliers and rely on their ability to run swiftly through vegetation to avoid predators. Black rails' communication consists of distinctive vocalizations, which are used to establish territory and attract mates. During the breeding season, males become territorial, defending small areas within their home range through calls and displays rather than direct aggression. Mating behavior involves vocal pairing, subtle physical interaction, and joint nesting.

Migration pathways and distances are not well-reported across subspecies. Some populations remain in the same area year-round while others migrate short distances in response to environmental changes. Spring migration is through to occur from the middle of March through early May, while fall migrations occur during a 2-month block from the beginning of September through the beginning of November. In both time blocks, migration is nocturnal.

Black rails tend to remain in familiar areas, rarely venturing far from their established range. If their habitat becomes unsuitable due to flooding or habitat destruction, they may be forced to relocate, but they typically show strong site fidelity, returning to the same areas year after year if conditions remain stable.

• Key Behaviors
• terricolous
• flies
• nocturnal nocturnal
• motile motile
• migratory migratory
• sedentary sedentary
• solitary solitary

Home Range

Black rails have small and well-defined home ranges, typically staying within a specific area of suitable wetland habitat. Within their home range, black rails establish and defend territories, particularly during the breeding season. Black rails have a home range size of 2.8 ha to 3.6 ha and each family of birds actively defends their nest, which typically have a diameter of 12-13 cm.

An Arizona study estimate home ranges for California black rails to be much smaller in summer months, averaging 0.4 ha (±0.2 ha), and larger ranges on wintering grounds.

Communication and Perception

Black rails primarily communicate through vocalizations, which play essential roles in territory establishment, mate attraction, and social bonding. The most recognizable call is the "kickee-doo" or "kic-kic-kerr" call, commonly heard during the breeding season. Males use this call to establish territory and attract mates. Females also vocalize, though their calls are typically softer and less frequent.

Eastern and California black rails exhibit differences in vocalization. The louder, more piercing calls of the eastern black rails may help their sounds travel further in dense habitats. Black rails rely heavily on acute hearing to detect predators and communicate with conspecifics, which is crucial for survival in dense vegetation.

Their vision is also well-developed and likely adapted to low-light conditions typical of marsh environments, allowing them to detect prey and avoid threats. Touch and proprioception are important as well; black rails have specialized feet that help them navigate dense vegetation and soft substrates. They use touch to find food, to mate, and to care for young.

• Communication Channels
• visual visual
• tactile tactile
• acoustic acoustic

• Perception Channels
• visual visual
• tactile tactile
• acoustic acoustic
• chemical chemical

Food Habits

Black rails feed on small invertebrates and seeds found in their wetland habitats. Their diet includes insects, spiders, crustaceans, and seeds from marsh plants. Eastern black rails eat a higher proportion of insects, particularly beetles (order Coleoptera) and ants (family Formicidae), while California black rails consume more aquatic invertebrates like crustaceans and mollusks.

Both sexes have similar diets, though females increase protein intake during breeding to support egg production. Males tend to forage in safer areas near the nest. Juveniles feed on smaller, softer invertebrates, gradually transitioning to a broader adult diet. Studies show that black rails are opportunistic foragers. During the breeding season, their diet is predominantly animal-based, shifting toward seeds in winter when invertebrates are scarce. Seeds include those opportunistically found in the marshes, like cattails ( Typha ), bulrush ( Scirpus ), and cordgrass ( Spartina ).

Contents by percentage are rarely reported. In Maryland, several black rails were found to eat water beetles in the family Hydrophilidae and weevils in the family Curculionidae. Similarly, few samples from Florida and New Jersey contained 98–100% insect material.

• Primary Diet
• carnivore carnivore
  • insectivore insectivore
  • eats non-insect arthropods
• herbivore herbivore
  • granivore granivore

• Animal Foods
• insects
• aquatic crustaceans

• Plant Foods
• seeds, grains, and nuts

Predation

Black rails face predation from coyotes ( Canis latrans ), which hunt black rails when they move through open wetland areas, and red foxes ( Vulpes vulpes ), which are known to prey on ground-nesting birds, particularly in fragmented habitats. Domestic and feral cats ( Felis catus ) also pose a serious risk, especially in areas where human activity has altered the landscape. Large birds of prey, such as great horned owls ( Bubo virginianus ) and short-eared owls ( Asio flammeus ), can spot black rails when they move across less dense vegetation, making them particularly vulnerable during times of activity. Humans ( Homo sapiens ) contribute to black rails mortality as well, as they intentionally hunt them for sport or other purposes. Other predators of black rails include great blue heron s( Ardea herodias ), great egrets ( Casmerodius albus ), northern harriers ( Circus cyaneus ), ring-billed gulls ( Larus delawarensis ), and loggerhead shrikes ( Lanius ludovicianus ).

To avoid predation, black rails rely heavily on their cryptic coloration. Black rails run through dense vegetation rather than take flight, which reduces their visibility to predators. They are also primarily active at night and during twilight hours, minimizing their exposure to diurnal hunters.

• Anti-predator Adaptations
• cryptic cryptic

Ecosystem Roles

As small marsh birds, black rails feed on invertebrates, and serve as prey for larger predators, such as herons, raptors, and some mammals. While they are not known to disperse seeds or pollinate plants, their movements through dense marsh vegetation may contribute to soil aeration and biodegradation, aiding in nutrient cycling within wetland habitats.

Black rails are hosts for various parasites, including feather mites in the genus Pseudalloptinus , moorhen fleas ( Dasypsyllus gallinulae ), and trematodes ( Prosthogonimus macrorchis ).

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

Black rails provide several positive economic benefits for humans, primarily through their role in ecotourism. Birdwatchers and wildlife enthusiasts travel to specific locations to view these rare birds, boosting local economies through tourism-related activities such as guided tours, lodging, and dining. Wetland conservation efforts aimed at protecting black rails also support broader environmental initiatives, preserving vital habitats that provide flood control, water purification, and carbon storage—services that benefit both people and wildlife.

• Positive Impacts
• ecotourism ecotourism

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

Black rails have no reported negative economic impacts on humans.

Conservation Status

Black rails are listed as “Endangered” on the IUCN Red List. The eastern black rail is federally listed as “Threatened” under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Black rails are not listed under the CITES Appendices. The birds are listed as Protected under the U.S. Migratory Bird Species Act, and there is no special status for black rails under the state of Michigan list.

Black rails face numerous threats, with habitat loss being the most significant. Wetlands and marshes, which are crucial to the species’ survival, are frequently drained for agriculture, development, and infrastructure projects. It's been estimated that since the 1800s, about half of all wetlands in the US have been drained, with greater losses (up to 85%) or coastal or tidal wetlands in California. Although black rail losses have not been estimated range-wide, documented population losses of 30% have occurred over just 15 y when rivers in the western U.S. are impounded. For eastern black rails, there's been an estimated population decline from the 1990s to 2020. This subspecies is expected to be extinct by 2068.

Sea-level rise and climate change pose additional dangers, as flooding can destroy nesting areas. Disturbance from human activity, such as overzealous birdwatching and land use changes, also contributes to population declines.

Several conservation initiatives are underway to help black rails, and their subspecies recover. Wetland preservation and restoration projects aim to protect and improve critical habitats, with conservation easements and management programs helping to sustain existing marshlands. Research and monitoring efforts focus on tracking populations and understanding the species’ behavior to develop better conservation strategies. Additionally, public education campaigns raise awareness about the species’ plight, encouraging responsible land use and birdwatching practices. Through these combined efforts, conservationists hope to stabilize and eventually increase black rail populations across their range. The California black rails face serious threats due to habitat degradation, climate change, and water management issues. Conservation efforts focus on preserving and restoring tidal marshes and wetlands that provide critical nesting and foraging habitats. Research and monitoring programs aim to track population trends and identify key habitats for protection. Additionally, public awareness campaigns and collaboration with private landowners play an essential role in ensuring suitable environments for the species' survival. Despite ongoing challenges, these conservation initiatives offer hope for maintaining and possibly increasing California black rail populations in the future.

Additional Links

Encyclopedia of Life

Contributors

Destiny Taylor (author), Radford University, Natalie May (editor), Radford University, Alexander McVicker (editor), Radford University, Karen Powers (editor), Radford University, Tanya Dewey (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.

References

Baicich, P., C. Harrison. 2005. Nests, Eggs, and Nestlings of North American Birds . Ewing, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

BirdLife International, 2021. "Laterallus jamaicensis" (On-line). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T22692353A178666347. Accessed January 29, 2025 at https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22692353A178666347.en .

Coale, H. 1923. A new subspecies of the little black rail. The Auk , 40/1: 88-90.

Eddleman, W., R. Flores, M. Legare. 2020. "Black Rail (Laterallus jamaicensis)" (On-line). Birds of the World (A. F. Poole and F. B. Gill, Editors). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. Accessed January 30, 2025 at 10.2173/bow.blkrai.01 .

Hand, C., W. Gabel, G. Dipetto, R. Bonafilia, J. Thibault, E. Znidersic. 2021. A window into the breeding ecology and molt of the eastern black rail (Laterallus jamaicensis jamaicensis). Waterbirds , 44/2: 207-221.

Headstrom, R. 1970. A Complete Field Guide to Nests in the United States . New York, New York: Ives Washburn, Inc.

Hines, C., L. Duval, B. Watts. 2023. Habitat association for eastern black rail (Laterallus jamaicensis jamaicensis) in south Florida. Florida Field Naturalist , 51/1: Article 1. Accessed January 30, 2025 at https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/ffn/vol51/iss1/1/ .

Reed, C. 1965. North American Birds Eggs . New York, New York: Dover Publications, Inc.

Stevans, B., C. Conway. 2025. Mapping habitat quality and threats for eastern black rails (Laterallus jamaicensis jamaicensis). Waterbirds , 44/2: 245-256.

Tilson, D. 2012. Emerging Technology for the Study of One of North America's Most Elusive Birds, the black rail (Laterallus jamaicensis) Master's Thesis . Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia.

Vallely, A., R. Gallardo. 2013. First documented record of black rail Laterallus jamaicensis in Honduras. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists Club , 133/4: 319-321.

Watts, B., W. Beisler. 2021. Recent advances in eastern black rail (Laterallus jamaicensis jamaicensis). Waterbirds , 44/2: 203-206.

Watts, B. 2025. Breeding phenology of the eastern black rail (Laterallus jamaicensis). The Wilson Journal of Ornithology , 132/4: 1043-1047.

Species Status Assessment Reports. Species status assessment report for the eastern black rail (Laterallus jamaicensis jamaicensis). 1.3. Atlanta, Georgia: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2018.

The Center for Conservation Biology Technical Report Series. Status and distribution of the eastern black rail along the Atlantic and gulf coasts of North America. CCBTR-16-09. Williamsburg, Virginia: College of William and Mary/Virginia Commonwealth University. 2016.