Geographic Range
The white-fronted bee-eater (
Merops bullockoides
) can be found in southern Africa; more specifically, in the countries of Angola,
Botswana, Burundi, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Kenya, Malawi,
Mozambique, Rwanda, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbawe. The latitudinal
range of the white-fronted bee-eater is bound between the western coasts of Angola
and Gabon, and the eastern coasts of Tansania and Mozambique. Its longitudinal range
reaches as far north as the southern portion of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
and as far south as the northern portion of South Africa.
Habitat
The white-fronted bee-eater typically reside in tropical areas, open grasslands, wooded
savannas, and non-heavily forested areas in Southern Africa. Colonies can settle up
to 7 kilometers away from foraging areas on vertical cliffs and valleys between 1400
meters and 2000 meters.
- Habitat Regions
- tropical
- Terrestrial Biomes
- savanna or grassland
Physical Description
The white-fronted bee-eater exhibits a relatively small weight and size. In weight,
males range between 28 grams and 38 grams; females range between 31 grams and 35 grams.
Body length is very similar between sexes, ranging between 21.5 centimeters and 23.5
centimeters. Wingspan is marginally different between sexes with males between 111
millimeters and 121 millimeters; and females between 110 millimeters and 121 millimeters.
Color distribution for plumage is as follows; an orange head and torso with a white
forehead, a black line across the eye line, a red throat, black-tipped green tail
and wings, and blue thighs. The white-fronted bee-eater's bill is long (~3 cm) and
downward curved, black in color.
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- sexes alike
- male larger
Reproduction
The white-fronted bee-eater (
Merops bullockides
) forms monogamous patrilocal (father-centered) relationships. The species exhibits
a cooperative breeding system which is strongly mediated by family structure in which
close family members (both male and female) of breeders assist in all steps of the
mating process. Helpers assist with digging the nesting site, defense, incubation,
and feeding. This system results in a positive correlation between number of helpers
and reproductive success for the breeding season.
- Mating System
- monogamous
- cooperative breeder
White-fronted bee-eaters breed once every year during a rainy season. For individuals,
breeding may occur during the longer April to June season or from November to December.
Breeding success for the season is dependent on the number of helpers (on average
2 helpers for every offspring), but range between 2 to 5 eggs. Time to hatching ranges
between 20 and 21 days. Upon birth, offspring on average weigh 4.8 grams. Well cared
for chicks will fledge at about 29 days, but some offspring can take up to 42 days
to undergo fledging. Adults fully plumage by about 6 months, but full independence
from parental groups will take an average of 9 months. The age for reproductive maturity
is unknown because growth rate is correlated to lack or abundance of food.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- seasonal breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- oviparous
During incubation, females spend more time in nest. After birth, nestlings are cared
for primarily by males. But after fledging, both males and females care for young
equally.
- Parental Investment
-
pre-hatching/birth
-
provisioning
- male
-
protecting
- male
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-weaning/fledging
-
provisioning
- male
-
protecting
- male
-
provisioning
-
pre-independence
-
provisioning
- male
- female
-
protecting
- male
- female
-
provisioning
Lifespan/Longevity
In a journal published by Stanley Flower in 1938, the average lifespan for individuals
of
Merops bullockoides
held in captivity was determined to be 7 years.
Behavior
The white-fronted bee-eater is a diurnal species, which means their primary activities
occur during the day. These activities, nesting and foraging, are completed in groups
or clans that the birds form. Mid-day, these clans will fly up to 2 km away from their
nesting sites to hunt. On average, the species has 300 of these hunting sessions per
day. During nesting season, the flight distance to foraging areas decreases as visitation
on the nesting site increases. This is a result of breeder helpers bringing sand and
other calcium rich foods for the breeders to consume.
Communication and Perception
White-fronted bee-eaters communicate both visually and vocally through shaking tail
feathers and contact calls. As white-fronted bee-eaters form communities, the presence
of these communication tactics are vital to the monogamous relationships that individuals
of this species form.
White-fronted bee-eaters also exhibit nonverbal communication through cooperative
breeding wherein smaller males assist larger males during nesting. This kinship role
serves to increase the likelihood of producing genetically superior offspring. Helpers
are also most likely to assist close genetic relatives. In a study by Stephen Emlen
and Peter Wrege in 1988, of 115 experiments in which a helper was presented multiple
potential mates, 94% assisted their closest relatives.
Food Habits
As the name suggests, the white-fronted bee-eater is an insectivore. The white-fronted
bee-eater primary diet consists of
Hymenoptera
(87.3%). Species include, honey bees (
Apis mallifera
) (50%), bees of
Trigona
(20%), and other
Hymenoptera
(17%). The other 12.7% of insects include beetles (
Coleoptera
) (6%), flies (
Diptera
) (5%), as well as bugs (
Heteroptera
), moths and butterflies (
Lepidoptera
), and crickets (
Orthoptera
). However, accounts exist of the species also eating small fish and regurgitating
undigested pellets of fish bones. The white-fronted bee-eater's finessed flying also
gives it the ability to feed in the air up to 100 meters in elevation with a 50% to
70% success rate.
While perched, the white-fronted bee-eater rapidly observes it's surroundings looking
for prey. To better understand the technique a bee-eater uses to consume a bee, an
experiment in which a captivity-raised bee-eater was fed bees was conducted by Dr.
Hillary Fry. After 10 attempts, the bee-eater taught itself steps to ensure the bee
was safe for consumption; hold the bee behind the thorax, crush the bee's head against
a hard object, hold bee by abdomen, rub bee's the stinger on hard object to destroy
it, finally twisting the bees head twice over before eating.
- Primary Diet
- carnivore
- Animal Foods
- fish
- insects
Predation
Adult members of the species
Merops bullockoides
have no prominent predators; but during the embryonic stage this is not the case.
Mongooses (
Herpestidae
), snakes (
Serpentes
), swifts (
Apodidae
), and honeyguides (
Indicatoridae
) will kill embryonic eggs by breaking the shell with their beaks. Predation is primarily
focused on nesting sites. Through vocal warning signals, individuals of the species
warn the colony of a predator intruding on the nesting site.
Ecosystem Roles
White-fronted bee-eaters create their own nests and form communities on the vertical
faces of cliffs. Nesting sites of white-fronted bee-eaters are preyed-upon primarily
by mongooses (
Herpestidae
), snakes (
Serpentes
), swifts (
Apodidae
), as well honeyguides (
Indicatoridae
). Honeyguides will kill white-fronted bee-eater young and also use their beaks to
make holes the shells of eggs.
- Ecosystem Impact
- creates habitat
- Mongooses ( Herpestidae )
- Snakes ( Serpentes )
- Swifts ( Apodidae )
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
There are no known positive effects of Merops bullockoides on humans.
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
There are no known adverse effects of Merops bullockoides on humans.
Conservation Status
The IUCN Red List lists the status of
Merops bullockoides
as "least concern".
Additional Links
Contributors
Mark Jabourian (author), Radford University, Cari Mcgregor (editor), Radford University, Zeb Pike (editor), Radford University, Karen Powers (editor), Radford University, April Tingle (editor), Radford University, Jacob Vaught (editor), Radford University, Genevieve Barnett (editor), Colorado State University.
- Ethiopian
-
living in sub-Saharan Africa (south of 30 degrees north) and Madagascar.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- tropical
-
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.
- tropical savanna and grassland
-
A terrestrial biome. Savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy. Extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical Africa and South America, and in Australia.
- savanna
-
A grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees, a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest. See also Tropical savanna and grassland biome.
- temperate grassland
-
A terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes (>23.5Ā° N or S latitude). Vegetation is made up mostly of grasses, the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available. Fire and grazing are important in the long-term maintenance of grasslands.
- monogamous
-
Having one mate at a time.
- cooperative breeder
-
helpers provide assistance in raising young that are not their own
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- seasonal breeding
-
breeding is confined to a particular season
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- oviparous
-
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.
- diurnal
-
- active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- sedentary
-
remains in the same area
- social
-
associates with others of its species; forms social groups.
- colonial
-
used loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies. More specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits (a continuous, modular society) - as in clonal organisms.
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- carnivore
-
an animal that mainly eats meat
- insectivore
-
An animal that eats mainly insects or spiders.
- endothermic
-
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
References
Asokan, S., A. Ali, R. Manikannan, P. Radhakrishnan. 2009. Observations on Nest-Sites, Eggs and Nestling Growth Patterns of the Small Bee-Eater Merops Orientalis L. in India. World Journal of Zoology , 4: 163-168.
Emlen, S., P. Wrege. 1989. A test of alternate hypotheses for helping behaviour in White-fronted Bee-eaters of Kenya. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology , 25: 303-319.
Emlen, S., P. Wrege. 1991. Breeding Biology of White-Fronted Bee-Eaters at Nakuru: The Influence of Helpers on Breeder Fitness. Journal of Animal Ecology , 60: 309.
Emlen, S. 1990. The white-fronted bee-eater: helping in a colonially nesting species. Cooperative breeding in birds: long-term studies of ecology and behavior , 1: 305-339.
Flower, S. 1938. The Duration of Life in Animals-IV. Birds: Special Notes by Orders and Families. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London , 1: 195-235.
Fry, C., K. Fry. 1992. Kingfishers, Bee-eaters and Rollers: A Handbook . Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Fry, C. 1984. The Bee-eaters . England: T & A D Poyser.
Hegner, R., N. Demong, S. Emlen. 1982. Spatial organization of the white-fronted bee-eater. Nature , 298: 264-266.
Hegner, R., S. Emlen. 2010. Territorial Organization of the White Fronted BeeāEater in Kenya. Ethology , 76: 189-222.
Hegner, R. 1982. Central place foraging in the White-fronted Bee-eater. Animal Behavior , 30: 953-963.
Konishi, M., R. Ricklefs, S. Emlen, J. Wingfield. 1989. Contributions of Bird Studies to Biology. Science , 246: 468-72.
Larsen, T. 1992. Temporary prey-specialization on migrant butterflies by bluecheeked bee-eaters. Entomologists' Record and Journal of Variation , 104: 253-255.
Pagel, T. 1997. Experiences Keeping and Breeding the White-Fronted Bee-Eater Merops Bullockoides in the Zoological Garden Cologne . United Kingdom: Avicultural Magazine.
Starck, M. 1998. The Evolutionary Significance of Developmental Plasticity in Growing Birds. Avian Growth and Development: Evolution Within the Altricial-Precocial Spectrum , 1: 288.
Stouffer, P., H. Power. 1991. Brood parasitism by Starlings experimentally forced to desert their nests. Animal Behavior , 41: 537-539.
Wredge, P., S. Emlen. 1994. Family structure influences mate choice in white-fronted bee-eaters. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology , 35/3: 185-191.
Wrege, P., S. Emlen. 1988. The Role of Kinship in Helping Decisions Among White-Fronted Bee-Eaters. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology , 23: 305-315.
Wrege, P., S. Emlen. 1987. Biochemical determination of parental uncertainty in white-fronted bee-eaters. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology , 20: 153-160.
Wrege, P., S. Emlen. 1991. Breeding Seasonality and Reproductive Success of White-Fronted Bee-Eaters in Kenya. The AUK , 108: 673-687.
BirdLife International. 2012. "Merops bullockoides" (On-line). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2012: e.T22683684A40574846. Accessed January 29, 2016 at http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2012-1.RLTS.T22683684A40574846.en .