Muntiacus crinifrons

Geographic Range

The documented geographic range of Muntiacus crinifrons includes the Anhui, Fujian, Jiangxi, and Zhejiang provinces of eastern China as well as within the Hkakabo Razi National Park of northern Myanmar. Ohtaishi and Gao (1990) suggested that the range of M. crinifrons formerly extended from the mouth of the Yangtze River, through the southeastern provinces that border the South China Sea, and into Yunnan province. Fragmentation of the former distribution of M. crinifrons may have been caused by deforestation for logging and agricultural purposes.

• Biogeographic Regions
• palearctic palearctic
  • native native
• oriental oriental
  • native native

Habitat

Muntiacus crinifrons inhabits hilly, often precipitous, mountain forests between 800-1000 m above sea level. These forests consist of a mosaic of deciduous broadleaf, evergreen, and bamboo patches with dense undergrowth and subtropical monsoonal conditions.

• Habitat Regions
• temperate temperate
• tropical tropical
• terrestrial terrestrial

• Terrestrial Biomes
• forest forest

Physical Description

One of the larger species of the genus Muntiacus , M. crinifrons can have a body mass as large as 28.5 kg, with females, on average, larger than males (24.1 kg and 23.1 kg, respectively). The pelage is mostly black to dark brown in color. The thick and long frontal tuft above and between the eyes is cinnamon red in color and often hides the long pedicles of the antlers. The tail is notably longer than in other species of Muntiacus (~21 cm) and is thickly tufted with white fur that extends onto the inner thighs. The ventral side is only slightly lighter in color compared to the dorsal side. During winter, the coat is much thicker and darker, but becomes thinner and lighter in color during the summer. Muntiacus crinifrons fawns have a coat similar to that seen in adults, except for the addition of four dorsal, subparallel, white spots.

Like other members of the subfamily Muntiacinae , M. crinifrons retain enamel-covered upper canines, which are elongated into tusks in males. In M. crinifrons , only males bear short (20-60 cm), single-branched antlers on long, hair-covered pedicles (8-10 cm) that extend from the frontal bone. Annual shedding of the antlers is presumed to occur by many authors. However, Groves and Grubb (1990) raise the possibility that the antlers are not always shed, because of observed similarities in antler size and morphology between M. crinifrons and M. atherodes , a species in which the frontal cavity extends into the pedicle preventing the development of a burr.

• Other Physical Features
• endothermic endothermic
• homoiothermic
• bilateral symmetry bilateral symmetry

• Sexual Dimorphism
• female larger
• ornamentation ornamentation

Reproduction

The details of the mating system is not known specifically for M. crinifrons . However, the behavior of M. reevesi is often used as a paradigm for other members of the genus. Males of that species demarcate and aggressively defend small territories exclusive of other males, these territories may overlap with those of several females.

• Mating System
• polygynous polygynous

Black muntjacs breed continually throughout the year without a distinct breeding season (polyestrous). Females may enter estrous before acquiring full body size. They bear only one fawn per pregnancy. In one study, some lactating females were found carrying fetuses, implying that post-partum estrus is possible in this species. The gestation period is not known for M. crinifrons , but in M. reevesi gestation lasts 209-220 days. The dappled coat of the fawn indicates that the young spend some time hidden in forest undergrowth until they are large enough to follow their mothers.

• Key Reproductive Features
• iteroparous iteroparous
• year-round breeding year-round breeding
• gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
• sexual sexual
• viviparous viviparous
• post-partum estrous

Little is known about the parental investment of Muntiacus crinifrons . However, in other species of Muntiacus , maturation progresses rapidly and females may simultaneously carry one young in utero while nursing another. Both observations imply relatively little postpartum parental investment by the mother.

• Parental Investment
• precocial precocial
• pre-fertilization
  • provisioning
  • protecting
    • female
• pre-hatching/birth
  • provisioning
    • female
  • protecting
    • female
• pre-weaning/fledging
  • provisioning
    • female
  • protecting
    • female

Lifespan/Longevity

The lifespan of Muntiacus crinifrons is not well known. Lu and Sheng (1984) report capturing a pregnant female of 11 years in age. This implies that M. crinifrons may have a lifespan similar to the 10-12 year lifespan estimated for Muntiacus reevesi .

Behavior

Muntiacus crinifrons is a solitary and territorial deer, inhabiting altitudes from 800 to 1000 m in subtropical mountainous forests. Secretions from the frontal and pre-orbital glands are rubbed against vegetation to mark territories. When the territory of a male M. crinifrons is invaded, he aggressively defends it, using the tusk-like upper canines to deliver damaging blows to the invader. Although other deer are found at similar altitudes and habitats in southern China, M. crinifrons do not share their territories with any other deer species, implying aggressive interspecific territorial defense.

The pedicles and antlers of Muntiacus crinifrons are thought to be used to engage opponents head-on in order to secure the opponent's head and avoid injuries from his tusks. However, the small size of the pedicles and antlers relative to body size imply that very little sparring occurs between males, suggesting lack of a social hierarchy among males. This contrasts with the social structure of larger-antlered Muntiacus species in which dominant males may tolerate subordinate males along peripheries of their territories. The lack of a social structure in M. crinifrons males is further supported by the smaller size of the males compared to the females, because small size is advantageous in fighting (i.e. increased agility) and disadvantageous in sparring and dominance displays.

In antagonistic encounters or during times of increased anxiety, M. crinifrons produces a deep, barking sound and raises it long tail, exposing the bright, white fur underneath. In addition, the fur of the distinctive red frontal tuft is raised. These behaviors may be used by M. crinifrons to inform predators or opponents that they have been detected.

• Key Behaviors
• cursorial
• terricolous
• motile motile
• sedentary sedentary
• solitary solitary
• territorial territorial

Home Range

The home range of M. crinifrons has not been well documented. M. reevesi males introduced to England have been reported to have home ranges of ~20 ha while females have smaller ranges of ~12 ha.

Communication and Perception

As mentioned above, M. crinifrons scent marks with secretions from frontal and preorbital glands to demarcate territorial boundaries. Such scent marks may also indicate reproductive status. Visual cues, such as a raised frontal tuft or exposed white fur of the upturned tail, as well as barking, convey anxiety and may inform a predator or opponent that it has been spotted. Studies of reproductive behavior in Muntiacus reevesi report that males use low postures and "buzzing" noises during courtship, but such behavior in M. crinifrons has not been documented.

• Communication Channels
• visual visual
• acoustic acoustic
• chemical chemical

• Other Communication Modes
• scent marks scent marks

• Perception Channels
• visual visual
• tactile tactile
• acoustic acoustic
• chemical chemical

Food Habits

Some species of Muntiacus have been described as omnivorous. However, a study of the rumen contents of Muntiacus crinifrons showed that the diet consists of leaves, twigs, and fruit without any animal matter. The contents included woody shrubs and vines, fallen fruit, herbs and grasses, conifers, and bamboo leaves, in order of decreasing abundance.

• Primary Diet
• herbivore herbivore
  • folivore folivore
  • frugivore frugivore

• Plant Foods
• leaves
• wood, bark, or stems
• fruit

Predation

The main predators of Muntiacus crinifrons are humans and dholes . Leopards are also suspected to prey upon M. crinifrons , but cases of leopard predation have not been documented. Muntiacus crinifrons uses visual and sound cues (as described above) to inform a predator that it has been detected in order to dissuade the predator from attacking. Other species of Muntiacus quickly flee predators down well-maintained trails and hide in the dense undergrowth until the danger has passed. A similar behavior is expected of M. crinifrons .

Ecosystem Roles

Muntiacus crinifrons is expected to be an ecological specialist due to its preference for a specific range of altitudes (800-1000 m). This is further supported by the exclusion of other deer species, who occupy similar habitats and altitudes elsewhere in China, from their ranges. Since this species has been found to eat fallen fruit, Muntiacus crinifrons may be important in seed dispersal. Beyond this, little is known about the ecological role of Muntiacus crinifrons .

• Ecosystem Impact
• disperses seeds

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

In both China and Myanmar Muntiacus crinifrons is hunted and trapped for its meat and skin. Local people in Myanmar sell the skins and antlers to Chinese traders for essential items and amenities.

• Positive Impacts
• food food
• body parts are source of valuable material

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

Muntiacus crinifrons inhabits mountainous areas with little or no human populations and have no negative impact on human economies.

Conservation Status

The geographic range of Muntiacus crinifrons is presumed to have been much more extensive is southeast Asia in the past, but has recently been fragmented due to habitat loss. In China, habitat loss has been attributed to overexploitation of mountain forests for timber as well as forest clearing for agriculture and infrastructure development. Overhunting may also play a role in the declining numbers of M. crinifrons .

During the early 1980's, the estimated population size of Muntiacus crinifrons in China was ~ 10,000 individuals. However, a 1989 estimate lowered the population size to between 5000-6000 individuals. The discovery of Muntiacus crinifrons in Myanmar suggests that the total population size may be closer to 12,000 individuals.

Additional Links

Encyclopedia of Life

Contributors

Tanya Dewey (editor), Animal Diversity Web.

Aaron Wood (author), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, Phil Myers (editor, instructor), Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.

References

Dueling, S., P. Myers. 2004. "Muntiacus reevesi" (On-line). Animal Diversity Web. Accessed March 21, 2006 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Muntiacus_reevesi.html .

Geist, V. 1998. Deer of the World: Their Evolution, Behaviour, and Ecology . Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books.

Groves, C., P. Grubb. 1990. Muntiacidae. Pp. 134-168 in Horns, Pronghorns, and Antlers . New York: Springer-Verlag.

Lu, H., H. Sheng. 1984. Status of the Black muntjac, Muntiacus crinifrons , in eastern China. Mammal Review , 14/1: 29-36.

Nowak, R. 1999. Walker's Mammals of the World . Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.

Ohtaishi, N., Y. Gao. 1990. A review of the distribution of all species of deer (Tragulidae, Moschidae and Cervidae) in China. Mammal Review , 2/3: 125-144.

Rabinowitz, A., G. Amato, U. Saw Tun Khaing. 1998. Discovery of the black muntjac, Muntiacus crinifrons (Artiodactyla, Cervidae), in north Myanmar. Mammalia , 62: 105-108.

Rabinowitz, A., S. Khaing. 1998. Status of selected mammal species in North Myanmar. Oryx , 32/3: 201-208.

Sheng, H., H. Lu. 1980. Current studies on the rare Chinese black muntjac. Journal of Natural History , 14: 803-807.