Geographic Range
Leaf deer (also known as leaf muntjacs),
Muntiacus putaoensis
, have been discovered in the Indo-Malayan ecozone and the Sino-Himalayan subregion
of the Palearctic ecozone, which both extend across Asia. This geographic range is
not surprising as it is consistent with the distribution of the entire
Muntiacus
genus, which is widespread in Asia. Specifically, leaf deer have been recently described
in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, which is rich in biodiversity. Leaf deer
have also been previously described in northern Myanmar (Burma) and China. Leaf deer
were identified in 1997, and due to this recent discovery, the extent of their geographic
range is still being determined.
- Biogeographic Regions
- palearctic
- oriental
Habitat
Leaf deer occupy the forests of isolated mountainous regions. They inhabit a wide
array of forest types including tropical evergreen rainforests, sub-tropical hill
forests and warm and cool temperate rainforests. Leaf deer have been observed at
a range of elevations, from tropical evergreen forests at 800 m, to cool temperate
rainforests at 3,000 m. Recently, leaf deer have been spotted in Arunachal Pradesh,
which has 82% forest cover and high annual rainfall. There have also been reports
of leaf deer inhabiting isolated mountains of both the Palearctic and Indo-Malayan
ecozones. In China, leaf deer have been described along the western escarpment of
the Yunnan Province and in mid-temperate areas with high floral densities.
- Terrestrial Biomes
- forest
- rainforest
Physical Description
Leaf deer are among the smallest known muntjacs. Their common name is derived from
the practice of hunters wrapping their small bodies in a single
Phrynium capitatum
leaf. Their specific epithet is derived from the town they where they were first
discovered, Putao, Myanmar.
Leaf deer are small
cervids
, commonly referred to as "fossil" deer, possessing "ancient deer" features. They
currently represent the smallest known species of muntjacs, standing an average of
50 cm at the shoulder and weighing no more than 15 kg, with an average body weight
of 12 kg (± 1.1 kg). They have an average head-body length of 80 cm (± 3 cm) and
an average tail length of 10 cm (± 1.6 cm).
Leaf deer have small, rounded ears, with an average length of about 7.1 cm, which
are more often than not, ripped and damaged. They have a patch of longer hair, forming
a tuft in their forehead region. Generally, leaf deer are similar to
common muntjacs
, with reddish yellow pelage and a darkened anterior portion of their legs. They
have dark facial markings that extend to the crown of their heads and have white ventral
fur. Pelage coloration is variable, contingent on the particular individual, their
age group, as well as the season of observation. Female leaf deer have been noted
to be darker in early spring than early summer. This variation in pelage may be an
adaptation to their woody environment and assist in avoiding predator detection. Leaf
deer fawns are a rich chestnut color, but in contrast to
common
or
Reeve's muntjacs
, leaf deer fawns lack spots. As leaf deer fawns age, their pelage fades from a rich
chestnut to the yellowish brown seen in adults. Leaf deer fawns reach adult height
by the first year after birth, but may not reach adult weight for several years.
They show no sexual dimorphism in body size, but male and female leaf deer do differ
in the presence or absence of antlers. Male leaf deer antlers are relatively short,
ranging from 1 to 6 cm and, consistent with other muntjacs, are grown on large pedicels.
Contrary to other muntjacs, leaf deer pedicels curve inward, causing the gap between
the pointed, single-tine antlers to be small. Antlers are occasionally cast from
deer that are at least 20 to 22 months old, but it is not a regular occurrence and
is more commonly associated with older males. Most male
cervids
cast their antlers regularly and do not mate until after their antlers are hard again;
however, muntjacs do not follow this pattern.
A feature of leaf deer that is not common to the entire genus is the presence of prominent
frontal glands. Likewise, their skulls have large pre-orbital fossa. Another unique
feature of leaf deer is the presence of tusks, formed from enlarged canines. These
tusks have an average length of 2.4 cm and are often damaged or scraped. Their maximum
skull length is about 20 cm, with an average of 17.5 cm (± 0.39 cm). They have an
average nasal length of 4.7 cm (± 0.37 cm), an average nasal width of 1.6 cm (± 0.15
cm) and an average braincase width of 4.7 cm (± 0.3 cm). Their dental formula is (i
0/3, c 1/1, pm 3/3, m 3/3) X 2 = 34.
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- homoiothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- ornamentation
Reproduction
Specific information on the mating systems of leaf deer has yet to be discovered.
Most male
cervids
cast their antlers regularly and do not mate again until their antlers are hard,
which results in a regular birthing pattern, given that mating only occurs during
certain months. Leaf deer do not exhibit a regular birthing pattern; rather, fawns
are born during all months of the year. Although there are reports of higher reproductive
outputs during certain times of the year, consistent with
common muntjacs
and
Reeve's muntjacs
, there is no defined reproduction pattern. In particular, pregnant and lactating
females have been observed in early May, suggesting a higher breeding output in the
late spring.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- year-round breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
The level of parental investment shown by leaf deer is unclear. However, reports
of a sub-species of Indian muntjacs,
Muntiacus muntjac malabaricus
, indicate that female juveniles stay with their mothers longer than male juveniles.
Fawns have been observed moving with their mothers, but usually spend their first
two months immobile.
Lifespan/Longevity
Information regarding the lifespan of the leaf deer is currently unknown.
Behavior
Leaf muntjacs are solitary. This is consistent with the notion that leaf deer represent
an ancient group of deer. Ancestral deer were small, solitary, selective browsers
of dense forests; more recent species are larger, more gregarious, grazers of open
woodlands. Due to the size of their canines and their often damaged ears, it has been
hypothesized that there are aggressive encounters among leaf deer. Interestingly,
females also have enlarged canines and show ear damage. Although, female ear damage
is less frequent, it is still notable and suggests female leaf deer are more aggressive
than female muntjacs of other species.
Indian muntjacs
and
Reeve's muntjacs
show peaks of activity at dawn and dusk, but overall activity patterns suggest a
diurnal habit. Given the similarity in habitat and feeding strategies, this activity
pattern may apply to leaf muntjacs as well.
Home Range
Further information regarding behavior has yet to be discovered; however, this species
may be similar to other closely related muntjacs. A sub-species of
Indian muntjacs
are also reportedly solitary. These muntjacs are never observed in groups larger
than four, and if observed in a group, it is most frequently a male female pair.
Indian muntjacs
are described as “strongly place bound”; restricted to a relatively small home range
(4 to 5 km2). Leaf deer may be similar to
Indian muntjacs
with respect to home range size because leaf deer also occupy dense, complex forests.
It is important for an animal to be able to maneuver their home range well, to be
familiar with the land in a complex forest; the deer keep a home range that is relatively
small.
Communication and Perception
Members of the genus
Muntiacus
are known as barking deer. Methods of communication specific to leaf deer are not
currently known; however, the presence of traits across the rest of the genus imply
leaf deer may also have similar characteristics.
Indian muntjacs
and
Reeve's muntjacs
produce sharp, dog-like barks. It is hypothesized that muntjac deer produce these
calls in response to visual stimuli, such as predators, in the dense forests where
visibility is restricted. This may serve as a warning to other nearby individuals
or as a pronouncement of vigilance, a form of anti-predator behavior.
- Communication Channels
- acoustic
Food Habits
Given their similarity to a hypothetical ancient deer group, it is suspected that
leaf deer are selective browsers of dense forests. Stomach content analyses have
revealed that they are frugivores; the majority of their stomach contents consisted
of partially digested fruits. Members of genus
Muntiacus
have been described as “nibblers”, preferring to eat fallen fruits. When they do
browse, they are selective and only consume buds, flowers or the blades of leaves.
Their morphology reflects their feeding habit; they have long tongues and wide lower
incisors, both of which aid in collecting fallen fruit. This morphology can be contrasted
to that of large grazers, who have large cutting incisors. Muntjacs move slowly while
feeding, keeping their nose close to the ground and only moving a small distance.
- Plant Foods
- leaves
- fruit
- flowers
Predation
Other than
humans
, there are no documented predators specific to leaf deer. They are often shot by
hunters or trapped in bear claw traps. Given the distribution of leaf deer in Asian
areas, possible predators include:
tigers
,
leopards
,
Asian black bears
and
Asiatic wild dogs
.
Ecosystem Roles
There are no reports regarding the roles that leaf deer may play in an ecosystem.
We can speculate, due to the knowledge of their diet, that leaf deer may hold an important
role in dispersing seeds of fruit on which they feed. They digest the ovaries of
the fruit and upon defecation; they may excrete the seeds in a variety of areas.
- Ecosystem Impact
- disperses seeds
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Leaf deer are relatively important economically for
humans
in the Indian and Asian areas. They are heavily exploited and are reportedly easy
to capture with bear traps and are often shot by hunters. The meat of leaf deer is
eaten and their skins are sold for leather.
- Positive Impacts
- food
- body parts are source of valuable material
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
There are no recorded negative impacts of leaf deer on humans .
Conservation Status
The conservation status of leaf deer is listed as data deficient. As with many other
facts about this recently discovered species, population information is difficult
to collect due to their solitary lifestyle and habitat preference. Leaf deer ranges
could be larger than what is currently known and as a result, conclusions regarding
conservation status cannot be made.
Hunting of muntjacs in Arunachal Pradesh was prohibited by the Wildlife Protection
Act in 1973, although documentation suggests hunting has persisted since then. In
Myanmar, leaf deer occupy regions outside any protection areas. More observations
need to be made to make further conclusions about leaf deer. They occupy isolated
mountainous regions in areas that are relatively inaccessible, due to the rugged nature
of the landscape as well as political instability. These factors have made travel
for observations rather cumbersome and possibly dangerous.
Additional Links
Contributors
Deanna Gigliotti (author), University of Manitoba, Jane Waterman (editor), University of Manitoba, Leila Siciliano Martina (editor), Texas State University.
- Palearctic
-
living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- oriental
-
found in the oriental region of the world. In other words, India and southeast Asia.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- temperate
-
that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).
- tropical
-
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.
- forest
-
forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.
- rainforest
-
rainforests, both temperate and tropical, are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground. Epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant. Precipitation is typically not limiting, but may be somewhat seasonal.
- endothermic
-
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- sexual ornamentation
-
one of the sexes (usually males) has special physical structures used in courting the other sex or fighting the same sex. For example: antlers, elongated tails, special spurs.
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- year-round breeding
-
breeding takes place throughout the year
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- diurnal
-
- active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- solitary
-
lives alone
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- food
-
A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.
- herbivore
-
An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.
- frugivore
-
an animal that mainly eats fruit
References
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