Nerodia clarkii

Salt Marsh Snake

Features
By Trinity Roberts

Geographic Range

Salt marsh snakes ( Nerodia clarkii ) are found in coastal regions of the southern United States and the northern coast of Cuba. Their range spans coastal habitats along the northern Gulf of Mexico, extending as far west as Corpus Christi, Texas, and continuing eastward to include nearly all of the Florida coast, including the Florida Keys. These snakes also inhabit Cuba's northern coast. Salt marsh snakes are native to both the Nearctic and Neotropical regions.

There are three recognized subspecies: gulf salt marsh snakes ( Nerodia clarkii clarkii ), mangrove salt marsh snakes ( Nerodia clarkii compressicauda ), and Atlantic salt marsh snakes ( Nerodia clarkii taeniata ). Along the Gulf Coast, gulf salt marsh snakes inhabit areas from Corpus Christi, Texas, to south of Cedar Key, Florida. Mangrove salt marsh snakes range from northern Pinellas County, Florida, northward to at least Merritt Island, including the Florida Keys and northern Cuba. Atlantic salt marsh snakes occupy Florida’s Atlantic coast, with their northernmost confirmed range extending to Volusia County, Florida. Further north, gulf and mangrove subspecies are found, and Atlantic salt marsh snakes do not occur beyond this area. Gulf and mangrove salt marsh snake ranges overlap between Cedar Key and northern Pinellas County.

Habitat

Salt marsh snakes thrive in estuarine environments, particularly where freshwater mixes with saltwater (e.g., salt marshes, mangrove swamps, and brackish tidal zones). These snakes are commonly found in shallow, intertidal areas where the salinity of the water fluctuates, ranging from brackish to fully seawater conditions. They are uniquely adapted to tolerate these varying salinity levels.

Gulf salt marsh snakes inhabit salt marshes, tidal creeks, and mangrove swamps, areas where vegetation is dominated by wetland plants such as cordgrasses ( Spartina ), rushes ( Juncus ), and glassworts ( Salicornia ). Mangrove salt marsh snakes are typically found in mangrove forests and salt marshes. They are more commonly found in habitats dominated by red mangroves ( Rhizophora mangle ), black mangroves ( Avicennia germinans ), buttonwood trees ( Conocarpus erectus ), and salt marshes filled with glasswort and cordgrass. Atlantic salt marsh snakes inhabit salt marshes, tidal pools, and mangrove swamps, particularly in areas where wetland plants thrive.

These snakes use a variety of microhabitats, such as burrows created by crayfish, fiddler crabs, and muskrats ( Ondatra zibethicus ), where they can take shelter and regulate their body temperature. They also take refuge under rocks, logs, or other debris along the shoreline, especially during low tide or cooler weather.

While their specific elevation range is not well-documented, salt marsh snakes are generally found at low elevations, typically around 0 meters at sea level. These snakes are observed in low-lying areas that experience periodic inundation. As semi-aquatic reptiles, they move between terrestrial and shallow aquatic environments.

Physical Description

Salt marsh snakes have keeled scales, meaning each scale has a raised ridge, giving their skin a rough texture. They also have a divided anal plate, where the scale covering the cloacal opening is split into two. They exhibit a striking variety of color patterns. Their dorsal and lateral surfaces may feature solid colors, stripes, or blotches, while their bellies can be solid or spotted. The color combinations include shades of brown, black, yellow, white, and red, often appearing in different configurations on their dorsal and ventral surfaces.

Gulf salt marsh snakes generally have the least color variation, typically displaying four dark stripes running along the dorsal surface from anterior to posterior against a lighter body. In contrast, mangrove salt marsh snakes show a wider range of patterns, often gray with dark spots or crossbands and sometimes with stripes around the neck. Their coloration can vary significantly, with some individuals appearing nearly black while others are pale yellow or reddish-orange. The Atlantic salt marsh snakes also display considerable variability, but they typically feature stripes on the anterior third of their bodies, with the rest of the dorsum marked by dark bands on a lighter body. Hybrid forms can exhibit characteristics from both parental patterns in areas where subspecies overlap.

Young salt marsh snakes are just as variable in appearance as the adults, though their stripes and spots are typically more pronounced. Notably, mangrove salt marsh snakes can produce a range of patterns in their offspring, with striped, solid, and blotched individuals occurring in the same clutch.

Salt marsh snakes typically range in length from 38 to 76 cm, with newborns measuring 15 to 20 cm at birth. While some adults can grow close to three feet, this size is less standard, with most individuals staying within the typical range. Salt marsh snakes’ mass has not been reported. These snakes show only a slight size difference between sexes compared to their close relatives, northern water snakes ( Nerodia sipedon ). Females commonly grow between 61 and 107 cm, while males typically are 41 to 61 cm; however, there are no significant differences in coloration or patterning between the sexes.

Salt marsh snakes were once grouped with banded water snakes ( Nerodia fasciata ), but they were later recognized as separate species due to differences in size and coloration. Salt marsh snakes tend to be smaller, typically less than 80 cm in length, whereas banded water snakes can grow larger, often exceeding 90 cm. Regarding coloration, banded water snakes usually have bold, well-defined crossbands, while salt marsh snakes exhibit more variable patterning. These distinctions have helped differentiate them as separate species.

Salt marsh snakes are ectothermic.

  • Sexual Dimorphism
  • sexes alike
  • female larger

Development

Salt marsh snakes are ovoviviparous, meaning the embryos develop inside eggs within the mother's body until they are ready to hatch. The young salt marsh snakes grow in the safety of the mothers’ bodies, benefiting from stable conditions as they develop. The yolks within the eggs nourish the embryos, which provide necessary nutrients to the young until they are fully developed and ready to be hatched. This development ensures that the young salt marsh snakes are hatched in late summer to early fall when environmental conditions and food availability are optimal for survival. Salt marsh snakes’ clutches average around 10 offspring but can be as many as 24 or as few as one.

Hatchlings are roughly 15 to 20 cm long. They grow quickly in their first year, reaching around 30 to 40 cm if conditions are suitable. Growth slows after that, with most reaching adult size (38 to 76 cm) within two to three years, depending on food availability and environmental factors. Salt marsh snakes typically reach sexual maturity around one to two years of age for males and two to three years of age for females.

Salt marsh snakes also exhibit indeterminate growth, meaning they continue to grow slowly throughout their lives, though growth significantly slows after adulthood.

Reproduction

Salt marsh snakes exhibit a polygynandrous mating system where both males and females mate with multiple partners. Salt marsh snakes do not form pair bonds, and there are no prolonged associations between mates beyond copulation.

Males locate receptive females primarily through chemosensory cues, specifically detecting pheromones released by females. These chemical signals play a crucial role in mate attraction, guiding males toward potential mates in their habitat.

During the breeding season, multiple males court a single female, sometimes forming mating aggregations where several males compete for access to a receptive female. Courtship behavior includes chin-rubbing, body alignment, and cloacal contact attempts.

Multiple paternity is common in salt marsh snakes with females having eggs sired by multiple males. This reproductive strategy increases genetic diversity and provides mating opportunities for a larger number of males within the population. The frequency of multiple paternity is influenced by factors such as female size, as larger females tend to attract more mates.

Salt marsh snakes are iteroparous, meaning they reproduce multiple times over their lifetimes. They follow a seasonal breeding cycle with reproduction occurring once per year. Mating takes place in early spring (March to April) with internal fertilization. Salt marsh snakes are gonochoristic with distinct male and female individuals. Males locate females using pheromone detection, and courtship behaviors include chin-rubbing, body alignment, and cloacal contact before copulation.

Salt marsh snakes are ovoviviparous, meaning embryos develop inside the female, hatch internally, and are then released as live young. Gestation lasts three to five months, and females produce one to 24 hatchlings per season with an average of ten. Because salt marsh snakes are sperm-storing, females can retain sperm for delayed fertilization if conditions are not immediately suitable.

Sexual maturity is reached at approximately one to two years for males and two to three years for females. Once fertilization occurs, embryonic development progresses continuously until hatching. Due to salt marsh snakes being ovoviviparous, there is no egg-laying or external incubation period. Instead, females store the embryos internally, maintaining them until hatching occurs inside the body. Hatching occurs in late summer (July to August), and each female typically produces one clutch per year. Salt marsh snakes' birth mass on average is around 3g to 4g but can range anywhere from 1.5g to 6.1g.

Young salt marsh snakes are immediately independent after hatching.

In salt marsh snakes, only the females contribute to parental investment, and this occurs exclusively before young snakes are hatched. The female supports the embryo development internally during gestation. However, once young snakes are hatched, they are entirely self-sufficient. The male plays no role in parental care at any stage. There is no guarding, feeding, or provisioning provided after hatching.

Lifespan/Longevity

Salt marsh snake lifespans are not explicitly reported in the wild or in captivity; however, Feaver (1977) suggests an individual snake in his study living to be five years old.

Salt marsh snake maximum longevity is also not reported, but the maximum longevity for their relatives, northern water snakes ( Nerodia sipedon ), is 9.6 years in captivity.

Behavior

Salt marsh snakes exhibit a combination of cryptic movement, ambush tactics, and active foraging strategies. They use their forked tongues to detect chemical cues in their environments to locate prey. A distinctive behavior in salt marsh snakes is lingual luring where they flick their tongues rapidly to mimic movements of small prey, such as fish, increasing their chances of capturing food.

Hydration plays an essential role in salt marsh snakes' behavior as these snakes require freshwater to maintain osmoregulation. They inhabit brackish environments but seek out freshwater sources to rehydrate. This need for freshwater influences their movement patterns, leading them to transition between saltier and fresher waters depending on availability.

Reproductive behaviors in salt marsh snakes include pheromone-based mate detection where males locate females through chemical cues. Courtship involves chin-rubbing, body alignment, and cloacal contact, with males competing for access to receptive females. Salt marsh snakes do not exhibit parental care beyond gestation, and hatchlings are independent immediately upon emergence.

Salt marsh snakes are primarily nocturnal, with activity influenced by temperature, tidal cycles, and prey availability. While they remain active year-round in southern Florida, populations in more temperate regions undergo brumation during colder months. Their movement patterns are largely dictated by environmental factors, but they do not undergo seasonal migrations. Instead, their movement between salt and freshwater habitats is predictable, as they periodically seek out freshwater sources for hydration.

When threatened, salt marsh snakes rely on camouflage and escape behaviors rather than aggression. They will often retreat into the water or seek cover in vegetation, burrows, or under debris. Salt marsh snakes shed their skin regularly to maintain health and reduce parasite load, further contributing to their survival in fluctuating coastal environments.

Home Range

Salt marsh snakes have small home ranges similar to those observed in closely related species like northern water snakes ( Nerodia sipedon ). Studies on northern water snakes indicate home range sizes smaller than twenty-five hectares, with many individuals occupying areas of less than three hectares. Although specific data for salt marsh snakes is limited, their habitat constraints suggest they likely follow similar patterns.

Communication and Perception

Like all snakes, salt marsh snakes use chemical pheromones for communication. While not explicitly documented for salt marsh snakes, they are likely to employ chemical signaling mechanisms similar to northern water snakes, especially in mating behaviors and territorial interactions. Their forked tongue collects scent particles, which are then processed by the Jacobsen’s organ to detect pheromones and other environmental cues, aiding in finding food and mates and recognizing potential threats.

Salt marsh snakes have functional eyesight but rely more on their sense of smell for navigation and prey detection. Salt marsh snakes’ vision isn’t as refined as some other predators, but they can detect movement and light to help them track prey or avoid danger. Salt marsh snakes may produce a defensive hiss when threatened. This vocalization serves as a warning to potential predators.

While tactile communication is less prominent than chemical signaling or vocalizations, salt marsh snakes may interact physically, particularly during mating, when males rub or push against females to initiate courtship. Their sensory communication channels—chemical signaling, vision, vocalizations, and tactile interactions—are essential for navigating their environment and interacting with other individuals.

Food Habits

Salt marsh snakes primarily prey upon small fish that inhabit brackish waters. They employ a specialized hunting technique known as lingual luring, in which snakes extend their tongues to mimic the subtle movements of a fish, enticing prey into striking range. This behavioral adaptation enhances salt marsh snakes’ ability to capture fish in shallow, murky waters. While most salt marsh snakes' diet consists of all small fish, they will opportunistically consume crustaceans, particularly fiddler crabs, when available.

Dietary variation exists between the sexes and life stages. Females can consume a broader range of prey, including fish and crustaceans, due to their larger size. Males primarily target smaller fish because they are smaller in size. Juvenile salt marsh snakes exhibit a similar feeding pattern to males, typically going for smaller fish. Individuals' ability to consume a more diverse prey base increases as they mature. This variation in diet reflects the snakes’ size, growth stage, and access to different prey types within their brackish water environments.

  • Animal Foods
  • fish
  • aquatic crustaceans

Predation

The natural predators of salt marsh snakes in brackish environments include marine fish, blue crabs ( Callinectes sapidus ), American crocodiles ( Crocodylus acutus ), and birds such as herons ( Ardea ) and whooping cranes ( Grus americana ). Salt marsh snakes are more vulnerable as juveniles and rely on their ability to blend into their surroundings with camouflage for protection. Salt marsh snakes' have a dull, earth-toned coloration which allows them to evade detection by predators, and they are less aggressive when threatened. In the face of capture, salt marsh snakes sometimes bite but typically rely on their ability to remain unnoticed in their environment.

Ecosystem Roles

Salt marsh snakes prey on small fish and crustaceans and are consumed by various fish, crabs, crocodiles, and birds.

Salt marsh snakes have a low recorded parasite load, possibly due to their brackish water habitat, which may limit the survival of many aquatic parasites.

Salt marsh snakes are parasitized by tongue worms, which are obligate endoparasites that live in the respiratory system of vertebrates. Two species of tongue worms have been documented in salt marsh snakes: tongue worms ( Kiricephalus coarctatus ), and invasive snake lungworms ( Raillietiella orientalis ), introduced through Burmese pythons ( Python bivittatus ). Both of these species infect the respiratory tract of their hosts.

Commensal/Parasitic Species

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

Salt marsh snakes are occasionally sold in the pet trade, with prices starting around $125.

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

Although salt marsh snakes are typically not aggressive, they may still bite if threatened. Other than potential biting, salt marsh snakes have no reported negative economic impacts on humans.

  • Negative Impacts
  • injures humans
    • bites or stings

Conservation Status

Salt marsh snakes are listed as a species of "least concern" on the IUCN Red List. They currently have no special status on the U.S. Endangered Species Act, CITES, or the State of Michigan list. According to NatureServe, the overall species has a global rank of "apparently secure", but this varies widely by state: they are considered "imperiled" in Alabama, "vulnerable" in Texas, and "apparently secure to secure" in Florida. However, Atlantic salt marsh snakes are listed as "threatened" under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, "threatened" on the federal site, and is also recognized as "state threatened" by Florida.

The primary threats to salt marsh snakes are habitat loss, pollution, climate change, and hybridization. Urban development and coastal alteration have already reduced available habitat, with estimates showing a 63% decline in global salt marshes by the end of the 20th century due to construction, aquaculture, and water management. Climate change is now compounding the issue. According to Krebs et al.'s study from 2023, salt marsh snakes' habitat in Apalachicola Bay, Florida, is predicted to decline by over 75% by 2100 under even moderate sea level rise scenarios (two mm/year). In more extreme scenarios (six mm/year), projected habitat loss could exceed 84%, severely limiting their ability to survive in coastal environments. Hybridization with southern water snakes ( Nerodia fasciata ) also poses a threat to the genetic integrity of some isolated populations.

To protect vulnerable populations, especially Atlantic salt marsh snakes, several conservation strategies are in place. The 1993 federal recovery plan outlines key actions including habitat protection, pollution control, and long-term monitoring. One of the plan's main goals is to limit further habitat destruction by using existing environmental laws, such as the Endangered Species Act and the Clean Water Act, to regulate development and dredging in sensitive coastal areas. It also calls for the identification of essential habitats and their protection through land acquisition programs, such as Florida's Conservation and Recreation Lands (CARL) initiative. The plan highlights the importance of population surveys, particularly in Volusia, Brevard, and Indian River counties, where Atlantic salt marsh snakes are most vulnerable. The plan stresses the need for research into the species' behavior, range, and potential hybridization with related snakes. The recovery plan aims to stabilize and eventually increase Atlantic salt marsh snake populations in the wild.

Encyclopedia of Life

Contributors

Trinity Roberts (author), Radford University, Natalie May (editor), Radford University, Alexander McVicker (editor), Radford University, Karen Powers (editor), Radford University, Tanya Dewey (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.

Nearctic

living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.

World Map

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

Neotropical

living in the southern part of the New World. In other words, Central and South America.

World Map

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

saltwater or marine

mainly lives in oceans, seas, or other bodies of salt water.

coastal

the nearshore aquatic habitats near a coast, or shoreline.

brackish water

areas with salty water, usually in coastal marshes and estuaries.

marsh

marshes are wetland areas often dominated by grasses and reeds.

swamp

a wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water, often dominated by woody vegetation.

estuarine

an area where a freshwater river meets the ocean and tidal influences result in fluctuations in salinity.

intertidal or littoral

the area of shoreline influenced mainly by the tides, between the highest and lowest reaches of the tide. An aquatic habitat.

ectothermic

animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature

bilateral symmetry

having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.

polymorphic

"many forms." A species is polymorphic if its individuals can be divided into two or more easily recognized groups, based on structure, color, or other similar characteristics. The term only applies when the distinct groups can be found in the same area; graded or clinal variation throughout the range of a species (e.g. a north-to-south decrease in size) is not polymorphism. Polymorphic characteristics may be inherited because the differences have a genetic basis, or they may be the result of environmental influences. We do not consider sexual differences (i.e. sexual dimorphism), seasonal changes (e.g. change in fur color), or age-related changes to be polymorphic. Polymorphism in a local population can be an adaptation to prevent density-dependent predation, where predators preferentially prey on the most common morph.

indeterminate growth

Animals with indeterminate growth continue to grow throughout their lives.

polygynandrous

the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males, each of which also pairs with several different females.

iteroparous

offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).

seasonal breeding

breeding is confined to a particular season

sexual

reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female

fertilization

union of egg and spermatozoan

ovoviviparous

reproduction in which eggs develop within the maternal body without additional nourishment from the parent and hatch within the parent or immediately after laying.

sperm-storing

mature spermatozoa are stored by females following copulation. Male sperm storage also occurs, as sperm are retained in the male epididymes (in mammals) for a period that can, in some cases, extend over several weeks or more, but here we use the term to refer only to sperm storage by females.

female parental care

parental care is carried out by females

natatorial

specialized for swimming

nocturnal

active during the night

motile

having the capacity to move from one place to another.

sedentary

remains in the same area

hibernation

the state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced, thus lowering the animal's energy requirements. The act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state, typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals.

visual

uses sight to communicate

tactile

uses touch to communicate

acoustic

uses sound to communicate

chemical

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

visual

uses sight to communicate

tactile

uses touch to communicate

acoustic

uses sound to communicate

vibrations

movements of a hard surface that are produced by animals as signals to others

chemical

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

cryptic

having markings, coloration, shapes, or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment; being difficult to see or otherwise detect.

pet trade

the business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets.

threatened

The term is used in the 1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals to refer collectively to species categorized as Endangered (E), Vulnerable (V), Rare (R), Indeterminate (I), or Insufficiently Known (K) and in the 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals to refer collectively to species categorized as Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), or Vulnerable (VU).

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To cite this page: Roberts, T. 2025. "Nerodia clarkii" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed {%B %d, %Y} at https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Nerodia_clarkii/

Last updated: 2025-17-01 / Generated: 2025-10-03 00:52

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