Geographic Range
Warty sea cucumbers are found in the Eastern Pacific Ocean along the west coast of
North America from Monterey Bay, California to Baja California, Mexico. They are
most abundant south of Point Conception, California.
- Biogeographic Regions
- nearctic
- pacific ocean
Habitat
This species is found in rocky and sandy bottom environments beyond the low intertidal
zone (down to 30 m), but typically the largest specimens are found in the subtidal
zone on sandy bottoms and rock surfaces where there is abundant food (mainly particulate
material from under the kelp canopy and granular sediments).
- Habitat Regions
- temperate
- saltwater or marine
- Other Habitat Features
- intertidal or littoral
Physical Description
Warty sea cucumbers are brown or orange and have black-tipped papillae on their ventral
surface (giving them their common name). The mouth and anus are on opposite ends of
their cylindrical bodies. Warty sea cucumbers can grow to a maximum length of 30-40
cm, but their soft body walls and lack of a skeleton enable these animals to expand
and contract significantly. There is no external sexual dimorphism in this species.
Average body weight is difficult to estimate because sea cucumbers have the ability
to take on sea water as well as eviscerate some of their internal organs periodically
during the year, thereby dramatically increasing or decreasing their masses. Generally
speaking, their mass is greatest in the winter months due to increased feeding and
gonad maturation. They possess tube feet which help them to gather food as well as
move across the ocean floor.
Water is pumped in and out of sea cucumber's anus into two specialized breathing apparati
known as respiratory trees or water lungs. The base of each tree is connected to
the cloaca and oxygenated water is drawn in through this sphincter, with deoxygenated
water then being expelled.
- Other Physical Features
- ectothermic
- heterothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- sexes alike
Development
After fertilization, the embryo hatches into a free-swimming gastrula within 64 hours.
By approximately 14 days post-fertiliztion, the gastrula develops into an auricularia
larvae, which ingests phytoplankton. The final larval stage of this sea cucumber is
the doliolaria (barrel shaped, non-feeding larvae with ciliary band/s). After approximately
27 days these doliolaria larvae settle onto rocks and algae, metamorphosing into pentacula
juveniles. Juveniles grow to 3.5 cm in length within one year and are strictly found
under rocks, never on them.
- Development - Life Cycle
- metamorphosis
Reproduction
Five stages of gonad development have been identified in this species: Undifferentiated/in
repose, gametogenesis, ripe, spawing and post-spawning (similar to other holothurian
species). All sea cucumbers are broadcast spawners, with fertilization occurring in
the water column. While they are releasing their gametes, sea cucumbers lift the fronts
of their bodies, forming an âs-shapeâ. This position is thought to increase fertilization
efficiency.
- Mating System
- polygynandrous (promiscuous)
Size at sexual maturity of Warty sea cucumbers has been recorded at anywhere between
40 g to 120 g. Gonads begin developing each year around January. Breeding season is
typically from May to June and is likely triggered by changes in water temperature
or phytoplankton blooms. Gonads are reabsorbed beginning in September.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- seasonal breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- fertilization
- broadcast (group) spawning
Because warty sea cucumbers broadcast spawn and larvae develop independently in the
water column as plankton, there is no parental investment.
- Parental Investment
- no parental involvement
Lifespan/Longevity
There is currently no published information available regarding the lifespan of this
species. In general, sea cucumber species are estimated to have a lifespan of 5-10
years in the wild.
Behavior
From August through November, warty sea cucumbers migrate to deeper waters, nearly
disappearing from the shallow waters near Southern California.
Warty sea cucumbers exhibit an annual evisceration cycle to expel sediment built up
in their systems from feeding on detritus. Over a four week period, typically sometime
between August and October, these animals expel their viscera and gonads then begin
to regenerate them for the next year.
- Key Behaviors
- diurnal
- nocturnal
- crepuscular
- motile
- migratory
Home Range
Sea cucumbers travel across the sea floor, ingesting sediment. They do not appear
to maintain a home range beyond remaining in areas where food is available. Sea cucumbers
neither establish nor defend territories.
Communication and Perception
Sea cucumbers are solitary and do not generally communicate with conspecifics, although
they can detect chemicals released during spawning, synchronizing gamete release between
animals within the same general area. The podia (tube feet) covering the ventral surface
perceive sediment texture as the animal crawls over surfaces.
- Communication Channels
- chemical
Food Habits
Warty sea cucumbers are detritivores and use oral tentacles and tube feet covered
with adhesive mucus to collect debris and sediment. This is passed to the mouth, located
within the center of the tentacles, where it is swallowed. After digestion, the remaining
non-organic material is eliminated in long fecal castings.
- Primary Diet
- detritivore
- Other Foods
- detritus
Predation
Young Warty sea cucumbers and larvae are vulnerable to predation by fish and other
animals; it is thought that this is why juveniles are typically only found under rocks.
It is possible for this sea cucumber species to purposefully and forcefully eviscerate
itself to distract predators, regenerating the lost organs later.
Humans consume a variety of sea cucumber species, including Warty sea cucumbers. There
is a great demand, particularly in Asian countries, for this species not only as food
but for folk medicine applications. It is considered to be widely overfished. This
species is also prey for a number of fish, gastropods and crustaceans, as well as
sea stars (
Pycnopodia helianthoides
).
Ecosystem Roles
Warty sea cucumbers recycle nutrients and clean the benthic environment when they
collect and eat detritus. They rework benthic sediments, oxygenating the top layers
and making them more suitable for burrowing infauna. Their feeding activity prevents
the buildup of organic decaying material and possibly pathogenic organisms in the
sediment environment. Additionally, their eggs, larvae, and juveniles provide food
for filter feeders and other species of echinoderms, fish, molluscs, and crustaceans.
This species is host to a commensal polynoid scaleworm (
Arctonoe pulchra
), which may be found living between the sea cucumber's podia, as well as unicellular
organisms (
Lichnophora macfarlandi
and
Boveria subcylindrica
) that live in its respiratory tree.
- Ecosystem Impact
- creates habitat
- biodegradation
- Red commensal scaleworm ( Arctonoe pulchra )
- Lichnophora macfarlandi (Order Licnophorida, Phylum Ciliophora)
- Boveria subcylindrica (Order Thigmotrichida, Phylum Ciliophora)
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Warty sea cucumbers are almost exclusively harvested by divers and shipped to Asian
markets in China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South Korea; they are sold for consumption
and folk medicine uses. Their dried body walls are known as "bĂȘche-de-mer." While
there is limited information on their basic biology and stock abundance on the west
coast of North America, there is evidence showing that these organisms are overfished.
- Positive Impacts
- food
- source of medicine or drug
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
There are no known adverse effects of Warty sea cucumbers on humans.
Conservation Status
Although there are indications that this species is over-exploited, it has no special
conservation status at the present time.
Other Comments
Although they are invertebrates, Warty sea cucumbers have an internal calcareous ring,
as do most sea cucumber species. This ring is made up of a series of plates joined
together around the esophagus. The shapes of these plates vary from species to species
and can be used in classification. It is also the only part of a sea cucumber to fossilize.
Additional Links
Contributors
Allison Knight (author), San Diego Mesa College, Paul Detwiler (editor), San Diego Mesa College, Jeremy Wright (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.
- Nearctic
-
living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Pacific Ocean
-
body of water between the southern ocean (above 60 degrees south latitude), Australia, Asia, and the western hemisphere. This is the world's largest ocean, covering about 28% of the world's surface.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- temperate
-
that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).
- saltwater or marine
-
mainly lives in oceans, seas, or other bodies of salt water.
- benthic
-
Referring to an animal that lives on or near the bottom of a body of water. Also an aquatic biome consisting of the ocean bottom below the pelagic and coastal zones. Bottom habitats in the very deepest oceans (below 9000 m) are sometimes referred to as the abyssal zone. see also oceanic vent.
- reef
-
structure produced by the calcium carbonate skeletons of coral polyps (Class Anthozoa). Coral reefs are found in warm, shallow oceans with low nutrient availability. They form the basis for rich communities of other invertebrates, plants, fish, and protists. The polyps live only on the reef surface. Because they depend on symbiotic photosynthetic algae, zooxanthellae, they cannot live where light does not penetrate.
- coastal
-
the nearshore aquatic habitats near a coast, or shoreline.
- intertidal or littoral
-
the area of shoreline influenced mainly by the tides, between the highest and lowest reaches of the tide. An aquatic habitat.
- ectothermic
-
animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature
- heterothermic
-
having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- metamorphosis
-
A large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows. In insects, "incomplete metamorphosis" is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form, and "complete metamorphosis" is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms. Butterflies have complete metamorphosis, grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis.
- polygynandrous
-
the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males, each of which also pairs with several different females.
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- seasonal breeding
-
breeding is confined to a particular season
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- fertilization
-
union of egg and spermatozoan
- external fertilization
-
fertilization takes place outside the female's body
- diurnal
-
- active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
- nocturnal
-
active during the night
- crepuscular
-
active at dawn and dusk
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- migratory
-
makes seasonal movements between breeding and wintering grounds
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- detritus
-
particles of organic material from dead and decomposing organisms. Detritus is the result of the activity of decomposers (organisms that decompose organic material).
- biodegradation
-
helps break down and decompose dead plants and/or animals
- food
-
A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.
- drug
-
a substance used for the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease
- detritivore
-
an animal that mainly eats decomposed plants and/or animals
References
Bruckner, A., K. Johnson, J. Field. 2003. Conservation strategies for sea cucumbers: Can a CITES Appendix II listing promote sustainable international trade?. SPC Beche-de-mer Information 24 Bulletin , #18: 24-33. Accessed May 25, 2012 at http://www.spc.int/DigitalLibrary/Doc/FAME/InfoBull/BDM/18/BDM18_24_Bruckner.pdf .
Carefoot, T. 2010. "Learn about Sandworms & Relatives" (On-line). A Snail's Odyssey: A journey through the research done on west coast marine invertebrates. Accessed May 25, 2012 at http://www.asnailsodyssey.com/LEARNABOUT/SANDWORM/sandwSymb.php .
Chavez, E. 2011. Stock Assessment of the Warty Sea Cucumber Fishery ( Parastichopus parviemnsis ) of NW Baja California. CalCOFI Rep. , 52: 136-147. Accessed April 29, 2012 at http://calcofi.org/publications/calcofireports/v52/Vol_52_136-147.Chavez.pdf .
Fajardo LeĂłn, M., M. Suarez Higuera, A. del Valle Manriquez, A. Hernandez Lopez. 2008. BiologĂa reproductiva del pepino de mar Parastichopus parvimensis (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea) de Isla Natividad y BahĂa Tortugas, Baja California Sur,MĂ©xico. Ciencias Marinas , 34/002: 165-177. Accessed April 29, 2012 at http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/redalyc/pdf/480/48034205.pdf .
Hamel, J., A. Mercier. 2008. Population status, fisheries and trade of sea cucumbers in temperate areas of the Northern hemisphere. Pp. 257-291 in Sea Cucumbers, a global review of fisheries and trade. , Vol. 516. 2008: FAO. Accessed August 20, 2012 at ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/i0375e/i0375e09b.pdf .
Herrero-Perezrul, M. 1999. Reproduction and growth of Isostichopus fuscus (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea) in the southern Gulf of California, Mexico. Marine Biology , 135: 521-532. Accessed April 29, 2012 at ftp://ftp.imarpe.pe/pub/biodiversidad/Taxonomia/ECHINODERMATA/Holothuroidea/Herrero.1999.Reproduction and growth of Isostichopus fuscus (Echinodermata Holothuroidea) in the southern Gulf of California, Mexico.pdf .
IUCN, 2012. "IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1" (On-line). Accessed August 25, 2012 at www.iucnredlist.org .
Rogers-Bennett, L., D. Ono. 2007. "Status of the Fisheries Report" (On-line). California Department of Fish and Game. Accessed April 29, 2012 at www.nrm.dfg.ca.gov/FileHandler.ashx?DocumentID=34418 .
National Environment Research Council. 2009. "Doliolaria larva (Holothuroidea)" (On-line). Zooplankton Identification Manual for the North European Seas. Accessed August 20, 2012 at http://192.171.193.133/detail.php?sp=Doliolaria%20larva%20(Holothuroidea) .
2012. "Parastichopus parvimensis - Warty sea cucumber" (On-line). Sanctuary Integrated Monitoring Network. Accessed August 20, 2012 at http://sanctuarysimon.org/species/species_info.php?speciesID=184&photoID=428 .
2012. "Sea Cucumbers" (On-line). National Geographhic. Accessed April 29, 2012 at http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/sea-cucumber/ .
2012. "Warty Sea Cucumber" (On-line). Monterey Bay Aquarium. Accessed April 29, 2012 at http://www.montereybayaquarium.org/animals/AnimalDetails.aspx?enc=VsGX Lst7QZhQBJCERG/gw== .