Phidippus

Features
By Emma Jones

Diversity

Comprised of 76 accepted species, Phidippus is a genus of jumping spider found primarily in North America. They are characterized from other Salticids by tufts of setae appearing behind their posterior median eyes and by iridescent chelicerae - however, it is important to note that while the vast majority of Phidippus species do possess the latter character, there are exceptions in Phidippus octopunctatus and Phidippus georgii . Like all Salticids, members of Phidippus possess phenomenal eyesight, second only to the genus Portia in sensitivity. As hunting spiders, their high visual acuity is an indispensable boon, as is their ability to problem-solve. Their keen eyes and perceived intelligence have made them a popular subject of study; their inquisitive character and relatively large size compared to other jumping spiders has also made them popular as pets.

Geographic Range

Phidippus is native to and primarily found in North America, with species found as far north as the Pacific Northwest and as far south as the Caribbean. Introduced populations of Phidippus audax are found in Hawaii, the Azores, and India; there are also introduced populations of Phidippus regius found in the Easter Islands.

Habitat

These spiders, varied in geographic range as they are, also occupy a range of different habitats. Phidippus species are found in grasslands, rocky meadows, woodlands, lakesides, in barns, and anywhere else where there may be suitable resources to exploit. While in one type of habitat there may be several species coexisting, each species tends to show a preference for certain plants, and this preference may also change depending on the age of the spider. For example, adult P. regius show a preference for palmettoes.

As hunters, Phidippus require open spaces to identify and pursue prey. The prey items depend on the environment (for example, dragonflies may be on the menu in moist environments, but not in habitats with no nearby bodies of water), and while there is a lack of data for specific prey types for every species of Phidippus , well-known species such as Phidippus clarus and P. audax are recorded to feed on a wide variety of arthropods, such as butterflies, flies, and other spiders. P. audax has even been observed ambushing an orb-weaver in its web, a hunting tactic usually ascribed to other genera in Salticidae . These spiders are not migratory, and species overwinter in various ways. To use the previous examples of well-researched species, P. audax immatures and adults hibernate in groups, while P. clarus may overwinter in the egg sac.

Systematic and Taxonomic History

According to the World Spider Catalog Association, Phidippus under the family Salticidae contains 76 accepted species at the time of writing. Named as a separate genus in 1846 by Carl Ludwig Koch, the species count of Phidippus also contains 50 synonyms and 24 nomen dubium. The type species, Phidippus audax , boasts the greatest number of synonyms; indeed, even Koch first named the species as P. variegatus , which was then in synonymy with Attus audax , described by Hentz in 1845. After a proposal to the Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature in 1970 by Levi and Pinter, " audax " was formally accepted under the nominal genus Phidippus .

These spiders belong to the subfamily Dendryphantina , a large and diverse group of salticids found in both the Old and New Worlds. This subfamily is united in monophyly by molecular data and by morphological characters. Another genus in this subfamily is Dendryphantes , making them close relatives to Phidippus .

Physical Description

Species of Phidippus range anywhere from 3 mm (in instances of small P. clarus males) to 22 mm (in instances of particularly large, gravid females of P. regius ). Females are larger in size than males, generally due to a comparatively bigger abdomen. Mature males can always be identified by their palpal bulb. These spiders possess large anterior median (principal) eyes flanked by three other smaller pairs curving up and around the prosoma, which has a reflective integument. The posterior median eyes are very small, and are associated with tufts of setae that usually come in sets of two or four. These tufts are always present in mature females, but absent in some males and among all first instars. Long setae cover much of the body and give these spiders a fuzzy appearance and contribute to their overall coloration, however it is their body scales to which the genus owes its diversity in color to. These scales are found in greatest quantity on palpi, legs, dorsum, and in females, the front of the head. Like the variation in iridescence present on chelicerae, body scales vary greatly in pigmentation, even among populations of species.

Like many spiders, salticids can cling to and run over various surfaces at different angles, but what is unique to this group is a highly developed pretarsus. Jumping spiders are so named thanks to this character. While not unique among Phidippus , it is a unique character among spiders in general. Specialized muscles can retract, raise, and lower claws that are designed to easily walk over and manipulate silk - for example, claws on the rear legs are serrated in such a way that they can cling to a silk safety line when a spider makes a leap. Phidippus has been observed to move more easily across rougher surfaces as opposed to very smooth surfaces, due to the fact that filamented "paw pads" assist in mechanical adhesion to surfaces; without anything for the filaments to hook onto, the spider has no grip. While jumping spiders move across a three dimensional environment in pursuit of prey, they must also have good vision to track their quarry. Like humans and other vertebrates, some spiders (including all Salticids) possess camera-type eyes, albeit simpler. All other arthropods possess compound eyes. The AM eyes in Salticids differ from their secondary eyes by having a moveable retina, a parallel to how the vertebrate eye moves in its socket. The lens produces a focused image that the retina scans, producing a high resolution view of the surrounding environment. While the AM eyes capture and identify objects, the secondary eyes detect movement from various angles around the spider.

  • Sexual Dimorphism
  • female larger
  • sexes colored or patterned differently
  • sexes shaped differently

Development

About one month after mating, a female Phidippus will lay her first clutch of eggs; several subsequent clutches can be had from one mating, with roughly one month between each laying. Embryos take three weeks to develop and hatch into a stage called the postembryo; this stage of life is short and ended when they reach their first molt, approximately another three weeks, whereupon they leave the nest. This stage is called their first instar, and each instar is denoted by the number of molts the spider has undergone as it grows. The smaller males reach maturity in their 5th to 7th instar, while females will reach maturity in their 6th to 8th instar. Immature spiders are difficult to sex, and the first instars of Phidippus species often look similar to one another, that is, dark colored and very small. When coloration does begin to develop, immature spiders often resemble the adult female of their species, regardless of sex. The penultimate instar is when sexual characteristics begin to develop; males will exhibit swollen pedipalps while the outline of the epigyne is visible on the abdomen of females.

Reproduction

Species in this genus mature as early as late April, with mating typically taking place in late spring or early summer. Males seek out females for which to perform a dance, involving raising of the forelegs and approaching the female in a zig-zag pattern, while thrumming his abdomen against the ground or substrate. This vibrational “song” increases the male’s success in mating. He will approach until his legs make contact with her, or until she retreats or reacts aggressively toward him. If she is receptive, and the male makes contact, he may then climb up over her and maneuver her body until he can access her epigyne with his pedipalps. Unlike the female pedipalp, males have a bulb-like structure attached to the end of their palps, which gives them a characteristic “boxing glove” appearance. It is here that sperm is stored and can be transferred through the embolus to the female. Cohabitation has been observed in some species, such as P. audax and P. clarus , which may be a mating strategy in males; when happening upon an immature female in her nest, males have been observed to attach their own nest to hers to wait until her final moult.

Structures called spermathecae present in many female spiders allow for sperm storage over a long period of time, therefore a spider can produce multiple eggsacs from a single mating. In larger species, the mean egg count per eggsac can reach as many as 402 ( P. regius ), and as few as 27 ( Phidippus xerus ). However, there is an outlier. A smaller species, P. clarus , is a productive egg-layer with a mean egg count of 358. This is hypothesized to be a result of evolutionary pressures - competition for egg-laying sites may have led this species to lay their eggs out in the open, exposing them to greater risk of predation. The larger the clutch size, the better average chance for instar survival. Under laboratory conditions, egg count totals for second and third eggsacs each hovered near or even exceeded the maximum first clutch size, meaning that a destroyed first nest can be entirely replaced by a subsequent laying.

In the wild, females typically succumb to starvation after laying their first eggsac. They must stay with their clutch, periodically laying down more silk to keep the eggs inside from drying. She remains with her eggs as they hatch, and then for some time after; in total, this is roughly a month without food. However, if a female is well-fed, she can produce up to three eggsacs in a single season.

Lifespan/Longevity

The exact lifespan potential of various Phidippus species in the wild is unknown. However, individuals of P. audax were observed under laboratory conditions to survive, on average, 405 days in males and 487 days in females.

Behavior

Most observations of Phidippus behavior center on their hunting patterns. Not only can these clever spiders remember the location of prey when it is out of sight, allowing them to take detours in their approach, but they can adjust hunting tactics depending on the prey item. A number of Phidippus observed under laboratory conditions were seen taking an anterior approach to cabbage looper larvae; those few that approached from other angles were at risk of being bludgeoned by the caterpillar’s hard head and had less success. When it came to the house fly, various approach angles were chosen by the spiders but they would take more care in approaching stealthily, and from a greater distance - caution that a slow-moving caterpillar would not warrant. This ability to judge distance and movement of their prey is also seen in the wild. Preferring to observe an area from a higher perch, such as a plant, a spider will spot their quarry and begin making an approach, often taking routes that will take the prey out of the spider’s field of view. During this approach, the Phidippus will frequently pause to reorient itself toward the prey’s last known position, displaying memory at work. This ability to remember can also be long term; juvenile Phidippus who have unpleasant encounters with ants will continue to avoid ants into adulthood rather than attempting to prey upon them.

Communication and Perception

With high visual acuity, Phidippus , like all jumping spiders, perceive their environment largely by sight. The presence of ultraviolet and green color receptors in the AM eyes of P. regius indicates they may see their world in color, albeit in dichromatic shades as they lack red color receptors. The brightly colored and often iridescently green chelicerae in Phidippus may therefore be a means of communication or identification among species, particularly for mating purposes. Additionally, the behavior of using legs and pedipalps to investigate substrate and objects in front of the spider is associated with receptors in the pretarsus, which respond to mechanical and chemical stimuli. As well, acoustic signaling is used especially in mating, when the male thrums his abdomen against substrate as part of courting a female.

Food Habits

In field observations, members of Phidippus were observed to hunt a wide variety of arthropods, including other spiders. The most common prey type for all species of Phidippus are members of the order Diptera . Conspecific predation also occurs. Like most spiders, Phidippus possess venom glands which incapacitate their prey, and carry out digestion through liquefaction and consuming the resulting slurry with the aid of a sucking stomach, which acts like a pump.

Predation

Phidippus may be excellent hunters but they are by no means on top of the food chain. They are preyed upon by wasps, frogs, reptiles, other spiders, and parasitic flies and nematodes; egg-eating mantises and flies, as well as parasitoid wasps, threaten nests. Even carnivorous fungus is a danger to these small spiders. Some species of Phidippus , such as Phidippus apacheanus and Phidippus cardinalis , appear to be mimics of mutillid wasps, which could deter predators who know better than to risk the painful sting of a velvet ant.

  • Anti-predator Adaptations
  • mimic

Ecosystem Roles

As efficient predators of arthropods, and prey for a host of organisms, these spiders play a dual role in keeping ecosystems balanced. Consuming invertebrate prey helps keep their populations in check, and in turn Phidippus populations are balanced by predation and parasitism from other organisms that share the ecosystem with them.

Commensal/Parasitic Species

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

Beneficial economic impact may be possible by using Phidippus as a biological pest control agent. Commercial insecticides can leave harmful toxins on the plant or have a negative impact on the ecosystem, therefore considering an effective predator of destructive crop pests such as Spodoptera frugiperda presents a positive alternative to pesticide use. In observational studies, P. audax was found to prefer the pest insects to those that are beneficial, such as members of the family Coccinellidae .

In addition to the possible beneficial use in agriculture, Phidippus , and especially P. audax and P. regius , are not difficult to source and purchase as a pet. Because they are easy to care for and possess unique qualities humans find appealing such as large eyes and an inquisitive nature, they are a popular choice in the arachnid pet trade.

  • Positive Impacts
  • pet trade
  • controls pest population

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

Like most spiders, Phidippus are venomous but pose no threat to humans. If a bite does occur, which itself is rare, the typical reaction is redness, rash, and localized swelling. This can be likened to a mosquito bite in terms of severity. There have been reported instances of atypical reactions; however this genus is not listed among the medically significant spiders, of which there are only two genera ( Latrodectus and Loxoceles ).

  • Negative Impacts
  • injures humans

Conservation Status

While most species of Phidippus are not of concern, or otherwise have no conservation information available, local populations may face risk from habitat loss. Phidippus pius , while common in the southeastern United States, has become rare in Minnesota due to loss of native prairie.

Encyclopedia of Life

Contributors

Emma Jones (author), Colorado State University, Tanya Dewey (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.

Nearctic

living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.

World Map

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

oriental

found in the oriental region of the world. In other words, India and southeast Asia.

World Map

introduced

referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.

Neotropical

living in the southern part of the New World. In other words, Central and South America.

World Map

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

oceanic islands

islands that are not part of continental shelf areas, they are not, and have never been, connected to a continental land mass, most typically these are volcanic islands.

introduced

referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.

temperate

that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).

tropical

the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.

terrestrial

Living on the ground.

tropical savanna and grassland

A terrestrial biome. Savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy. Extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical Africa and South America, and in Australia.

savanna

A grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees, a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest. See also Tropical savanna and grassland biome.

temperate grassland

A terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes (>23.5° N or S latitude). Vegetation is made up mostly of grasses, the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available. Fire and grazing are important in the long-term maintenance of grasslands.

chaparral

Found in coastal areas between 30 and 40 degrees latitude, in areas with a Mediterranean climate. Vegetation is dominated by stands of dense, spiny shrubs with tough (hard or waxy) evergreen leaves. May be maintained by periodic fire. In South America it includes the scrub ecotone between forest and paramo.

forest

forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.

scrub forest

scrub forests develop in areas that experience dry seasons.

marsh

marshes are wetland areas often dominated by grasses and reeds.

bog

a wetland area rich in accumulated plant material and with acidic soils surrounding a body of open water. Bogs have a flora dominated by sedges, heaths, and sphagnum.

urban

living in cities and large towns, landscapes dominated by human structures and activity.

suburban

living in residential areas on the outskirts of large cities or towns.

agricultural

living in landscapes dominated by human agriculture.

riparian

Referring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody (usually, but not always, a river or stream).

ectothermic

animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature

bilateral symmetry

having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.

venomous

an animal which has an organ capable of injecting a poisonous substance into a wound (for example, scorpions, jellyfish, and rattlesnakes).

polygynandrous

the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males, each of which also pairs with several different females.

iteroparous

offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).

seasonal breeding

breeding is confined to a particular season

sexual

reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female

fertilization

union of egg and spermatozoan

internal fertilization

fertilization takes place within the female's body

oviparous

reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.

sperm-storing

mature spermatozoa are stored by females following copulation. Male sperm storage also occurs, as sperm are retained in the male epididymes (in mammals) for a period that can, in some cases, extend over several weeks or more, but here we use the term to refer only to sperm storage by females.

delayed fertilization

a substantial delay (longer than the minimum time required for sperm to travel to the egg) takes place between copulation and fertilization, used to describe female sperm storage.

young precocial

young are relatively well-developed when born

female parental care

parental care is carried out by females

saltatorial

specialized for leaping or bounding locomotion; jumps or hops.

diurnal
  1. active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
motile

having the capacity to move from one place to another.

sedentary

remains in the same area

solitary

lives alone

visual

uses sight to communicate

tactile

uses touch to communicate

chemical

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

pheromones

chemicals released into air or water that are detected by and responded to by other animals of the same species

vibrations

movements of a hard surface that are produced by animals as signals to others

visual

uses sight to communicate

tactile

uses touch to communicate

vibrations

movements of a hard surface that are produced by animals as signals to others

chemical

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

pet trade

the business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets.

venomous

an animal which has an organ capable of injecting a poisonous substance into a wound (for example, scorpions, jellyfish, and rattlesnakes).

carnivore

an animal that mainly eats meat

insectivore

An animal that eats mainly insects or spiders.

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To cite this page: Jones, E. 2025. "Phidippus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed {%B %d, %Y} at https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Phidippus/

Last updated: 2025-27-30 / Generated: 2025-10-03 01:04

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