Animal Diversity Web

Ge­o­graphic Range

Red-chested mus­tached tamarins, Sagui­nus labi­a­tus, are found in South Amer­ica and are found in par­tic­u­larly high den­si­ties (up to 45 in­di­vid­u­als per sq km) in north­west­ern Bo­livia (Suarez 2007). Red-chested mus­tached tamarins also in­habit the mid­dle Ama­zon­ian re­gion of Brazil as well as south­east­ern Peru (Wolfheim 1983). (Suarez, 2007; Wolfheim, 1983)

• Biogeographic Regions
• neotropical
  • native

Habi­tat

Red-chested mus­tached tamarins in­habit Ama­zon­ian rain­forests. They are ar­bo­real and spend most of their time in pri­mary and sec­ondary forests (Porter 2004, Mit­ter­meier and Wal­lace 2008). They are gen­er­ally found at el­e­va­tions be­tween 90 and 289 m. (Mit­ter­meier and Wal­lace, 2008; Porter, 2004; Suarez, 2007)

• Habitat Regions
• tropical
• terrestrial

• Terrestrial Biomes
• rainforest

• Range elevation

  90 to 289 m

  295.28 to 948.16 ft

Phys­i­cal De­scrip­tion

Red-chested mus­tached tamarins are also known as red-bel­lied tamarins and white-lipped tamarins be­cause of their ap­pear­ance. They are mostly dark brown or black in color, and have dis­tin­guish­ing red mark­ings on their stom­achs and chests (Her­shkovitz 1977). They also have a patch of white fur sur­round­ing their nose and mouth, giv­ing the ap­pear­ance of a mus­tache (Her­shkovitz 1977). Red-chested mus­tached tamarins are rel­a­tively small, rang­ing from 23 to 29 cm in body length and 350 to 575 g in mass. Fe­males are gen­er­ally slightly larger than males (Suarez 2007). Mem­bers of this species have claw-like nails on all dig­its ex­cept the hal­lux, and their hind limbs are slightly longer than their fore­limbs (Gar­ber and Leigh 2001). The den­tal for­mula for this species is 2.​1.​3.​2 (Suarez 2007). (Gar­ber and Leigh, 2001; Her­skovitz, 1977; Suarez, 2007)

• Other Physical Features
• endothermic
• bilateral symmetry

• Sexual Dimorphism
• sexes alike
• female larger

• Range mass

  450 to 575 g

  15.86 to 20.26 oz

• Range length

  23 to 29 cm

  9.06 to 11.42 in

Re­pro­duc­tion

Be­cause breed­ing fe­males may mate with more than one male, red-chested mus­tached tamarins are gen­er­ally con­sid­ered polyan­drous. There is also ev­i­dence of male com­pe­ti­tion, as breed­ing males de­fend their mates by phys­i­cally in­sert­ing them­selves be­tween a breed­ing fe­male and non-breed­ing males within the group that ap­proach (Suarez 2007).

Re­cent stud­ies, how­ever, pro­pose a se­ri­ally monog­a­mous breed­ing sys­tem. Min­i­mal ag­gres­sion ob­served among males within a group has sup­ported this idea (Suarez 2007). Ad­di­tion­ally, ge­netic stud­ies of wild groups in­di­cate that one breed­ing male and one breed­ing fe­male are re­spon­si­ble for all in­fants and/or ju­ve­niles in a group (Suarez 2007). (Suarez, 2007)

Other adults in a group of red-chested mus­tached tamarins are con­sid­ered "helper" adults, and are typ­i­cally re­lated to one of the breed­ers (Suarez 2007). Dur­ing in­ter­group en­coun­ters, helper group mem­bers as­sess the breed­ing sit­u­a­tion of neigh­bor­ing groups. If a helper, or a pair of helpers such as a set of twins, senses in­sta­bil­ity in a neigh­bor­ing group, it may use an in­ter­group en­counter as an op­por­tu­nity to move to a dif­fer­ent group, in which they can at­tempt to be­come a breeder (Suarez 2007).

Breed­ing males also de­fend breed­ing fe­males dur­ing in­ter­group in­ter­ac­tions. Fe­males are gen­er­ally chased away by their mates from sites where in­ter­group in­ter­ac­tions occur. In fact, most ag­gres­sion of breed­ing male red-chested mus­tached tamarins is tar­geted at a breed­ing fe­male as he at­tempts to keep her away from these sites (Suarez 2007). (Suarez, 2007)

• Mating System
• monogamous
• polyandrous

In the wild, red-chested mus­tached tamarins gen­er­ally mate in the spring (March to June), and breed­ing peeks in April. After a ges­ta­tion pe­riod of about 160 days, most in­fants are born in the fall (late Au­gust to early De­cem­ber) (Suarez 2007). In cap­tiv­ity, how­ever, mem­bers of this spe­ices can mate dur­ing any sea­son (Coates and Poole 1983). Red-chested mus­tached tamarins can breed as much as twice a year.

Each birth typ­i­cally pro­duces fra­ter­nal twins, each weigh­ing ap­prox­i­mately 40g, though oc­ca­sion­ally only a sin­gle in­fant is born (Nakamichi and Ya­mada 2009, Coates and Poole 1983). In­fants begin nurs­ing im­me­di­ately, and ob­tain all of their nu­tri­ents from their mother’s milk until they are 5 weeks old, when they may begin to eat solid food (Coates and Poole 1983). By 16 weeks of age, in­fants are usu­ally com­pletely weaned (Suarez 2007). Red-chested mus­tached tamarins be­come in­de­pen­dent around 1 to 2 years of age and sex­u­ally ma­ture around 2 to 4 years of age (Suarez 2007).

Breed­ing fe­males chem­i­cally in­hibit the first ovu­la­tion of their daugh­ters, as fe­males not re­lated to the pri­mary breed­ing fe­male are rarely tol­er­ated. These daugh­ters may reach sex­ual ma­tu­rity later than males of the same age (Smith and Gor­don 2002). (Coates and Poole, 1983; Nakamichi and Ya­mada, 2009; Smith and Gor­don, 2002; Suarez, 2007)

• Key Reproductive Features
• iteroparous
• gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
• sexual
• fertilization
• viviparous

• Breeding interval

  Breeding female red-chested mustached tamarins can breed up to twice yearly.

• Breeding season

  In the wild, red-chested mustached tamarins tend to mate during the spring (March to June), particularly in April. In captivity, however, they mate during any season.

• Range number of offspring

  1 to 2

• Average number of offspring

  2

• Range gestation period

  150 to 170 days

• Average weaning age

  16 weeks

• Range time to independence

  1 to 2 years

• Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)

  2 to 4 years

• Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)

  2 to 4 years

Be­cause red-chested mus­tached tamarins tend to live in groups, in­vest­ment in off­spring is shared. For 2 months after in­fants are born, a mother pro­vides nour­ish­ment to her young in the form of milk (Coates and Poole 1983). Other group mem­bers pro­tect in­fants by car­ry­ing them. This is gen­er­ally per­formed by the breed­ing male and fe­male as well as the helper male. Helper males are usu­ally re­lated to the de­gree of sib­ling or half-sib­ling to one of the breed­ing in­di­vid­u­als and thus gain in­clu­sive fit­ness by par­tic­i­pat­ing in in­fant care (Suarez 2007).

De­gree of in­vest­ment from each in­di­vid­ual varies from group to group. In some cases, the breed­ing male is re­spon­si­ble for most of the car­ry­ing (Pryce 1988), while in oth­ers, the breed­ing male and helper male equally con­tribute but carry much less often than the breed­ing fe­male (Suarez 2007). Other group mem­bers large enough to pro­vide in­fant care often do so, but not to the ex­tent of breed­ing adults or the most closely-re­lated helper male (Suarez 2007).

Once wean­ing oc­curs, in­fants begin to eat solid food. Be­cause in­fants are too small to for­age for their own food, they rely on older mem­bers of the group to share. In the wild, adult males ap­pear to be re­spon­si­ble for most food shar­ing, though the fa­ther does not nec­es­sar­ily share most (Suarez 2007). In­fants reach in­de­pen­dence around 1 to 2 years of age (Suarez 2007). (Coates and Poole, 1983; Pryce, 1988; Suarez, 2007)

• Parental Investment
• altricial
• male parental care
• female parental care
• pre-hatching/birth
  • provisioning
    • female
  • protecting
    • female
• pre-weaning/fledging
  • provisioning
    • female
  • protecting
    • male
    • female
• pre-independence
  • provisioning
    • male
  • protecting
    • male
    • female

Lifes­pan/Longevity

The lifes­pan of red-chested mus­tached tamarins is gen­er­ally un­known. Other mem­bers of the genus Sagui­nus live into their early teens (John­son 2008). In the wild, red-chested mus­tached tamarins es­ti­mated to be over the age of 8 based on tooth-wear are con­sid­ered “old” (Suarez 2007). (John­son, 2008; Suarez, 2007)

Be­hav­ior

Red-chested mus­tached tamarins are di­ur­nal, so­cial crea­tures that live in groups. Groups range in size from 2 to 13 in­di­vid­u­als, though groups typ­i­cally con­sist of 4 to 6 mem­bers (Suarez 2007, Buchanan-Smith 1991). Each group con­tains 1 breed­ing male and 1 breed­ing fe­male. The rest of the group is com­posed of off­spring and helper males, which are usu­ally re­lated to one of the breed­ing in­di­vid­u­als (Suarez 2007).

Often, groups of red-chested mus­tached tamarins as­so­ci­ate with groups of other cal­litrichines that share their home range. They have been ob­served as­so­ci­at­ing with groups of sad­dle-backed tamarins as well as groups of Goeldi's mar­mosets (Gar­ber and Leigh 2001). These as­so­ci­a­tions allow for in­creased vig­i­lance and home-range de­fense with­out in­creased com­pe­ti­tion for mates or food (Gar­ber and Leigh 2001; Hardie and Buchanan-Smith 1997). (Buchanan-Smith, 1991; Gar­ber and Leigh, 2001; Hardie and Buchanan-Smith, 1997; Suarez, 2007)

• Key Behaviors
• arboreal
• diurnal
• motile
• territorial
• social

• Range territory size

  0.15 to 0.23 km^2

Home Range

Ter­ri­to­ries of a group of red-chested mus­tached tamarins range from 0.15 to 0.23 sq km in size, but this may vary with sea­son and group size (Buchanan-Smith 1991; Suarez 2007). Red-chested mus­tached tamarins uti­lize 25 to 30% of their home range each day (Buchanan-Smith 1991). Some por­tions of the home range are vis­ited more fre­quently than oth­ers, par­tic­u­larly fa­vored feed­ing sites, sleep­ing sites, sites of in­ter­group en­coun­ters, and areas that pro­vide shel­ter from rain dur­ing the rainy sea­son. Red-chested mus­tached tamarins travel ap­prox­i­mately 1.3 to 1.7 km each day (Buchanan-Smith 1991). In densly pop­u­lated areas, home ranges of dif­fer­ent groups may over­lap by 20 to 30% (Suarez 2007). (Buchanan-Smith, 1991; Suarez, 2007)

Com­mu­ni­ca­tion and Per­cep­tion

Red-chested mus­tached tamarins pri­mar­ily com­mu­ni­cate through scent mark­ing and vocal calls. They have scent glands in both the cir­cum­gen­i­tal and gu­larster­nal re­gions of their bod­ies (Suarez 2007). The size and use of these glands as well as the fre­quency of scent mark­ing vary with sex. Fe­male red-chested mus­tached tamarins tend to have larger an­gio­gen­i­tal and supra­pu­bic scent glands, and males scentv­mark using ster­nal glands more often than fe­males (Suarez 2007). Fe­males scent mark more fre­quently than males in al­most any cir­cum­stance (Smith and Gor­don 2002).

Fe­males use scent mark­ing more often when fer­tile. This scent mark­ing is thought to at­tract breed­ing males or com­mu­ni­cate re­cep­tive­ness to breed­ing (Suarez 2007), be­cause males, par­tic­u­larly breed­ing males, are much more in­ter­ested in check­ing fe­male scent mark­ings than fe­males are in check­ing male scent mark­ings (Gor­don and Smith 2002). Ad­di­tion­ally, breed­ing males are more likely to wit­ness (due to prox­im­ity), sniff, and over-mark a fe­male scent mark than other males (Suarez 2007).

Breed­ing males use scent mark­ing more often than other males in the group. Scent mark­ing by males oc­curs most often dur­ing in­ter­group en­coun­ters and thus may be a com­mu­ni­ca­tion of ter­ri­to­ri­al­ity (Suarez 2007). This rit­ual of male scent mark­ing re­quires two males (usu­ally the breed­ing male and the sec­ond-rank­ing male in the group), and be­gins with the males fac­ing one an­other. One male (usu­ally the breed­ing male) climbs over the other male and scent marks the bot­tom male’s head and back using an­gio­gen­i­tal scent glands. As this oc­curs, the bot­tom male scent marks the branch be­neath him with his ster­nal and then his supra­pu­bic scent glands (Suarez 2007). Once the top male has passed over the bot­tom male, he scent marks the branch be­hind the bot­tom male. Both con­clude the rit­ual with an an­gio­gen­i­tal scent mark (Suarez 2007). Be­cause this rit­ual gen­er­ally oc­curs dur­ing in­ter­group en­coun­ters, it may be a dis­play of male sol­i­dar­ity to ex­tra­group in­di­vid­u­als (Suarez 2007). (Smith and Gor­don, 2002; Suarez, 2007)

Be­cause they are small, red-chested mus­tached tamarins are con­stantly alert and per­form vi­sual scans of their en­vi­ron­ment quite often to en­sure they are safe from po­ten­tial preda­tors. Length of these vi­sual scans varies with group size (Hardie and Buchanan-Smith 2002). If a po­ten­tial preda­tor is seen, a tamarin is­sues a loud alarm call, which dif­fers based on the type of preda­tor (Suarez 2007).

Red-chested mus­tached tamarins have also been ob­served pro­duc­ing “long calls,” which seem to be calls to neigh­bor­ing groups of tamarins. These calls are often pro­duced when red-chested mus­tached tamarins emerge from their sleep­ing sites in the morn­ing and often re­sult in in­ter­group en­coun­ters (Suarez 2007). (Hardie and Buchanan-Smith, 1997; Suarez, 2007)

• Communication Channels
• acoustic
• chemical

• Other Communication Modes
• scent marks

• Perception Channels
• visual
• tactile
• acoustic
• chemical

Food Habits

Al­though red-chested mus­tached tamarins are om­niv­o­rous, the ma­jor­ity of their diet (about 60%) con­sists of fruit (Porter 2001). They eat a va­ri­ety of fruits in­clud­ing Ce­cropia sci­ado­phylla, Pseudol­me­dia rigida, and ama­zon grapes, Pourouma ce­cropi­ae­fo­lia. How­ever, they pri­mar­ily eat fruits of the fam­ily Moraceae (Buchanan-Smith 1991).

Dur­ing the dry sea­son (June to Au­gust), when fruit is scarce, red-chested mus­tached tamarins often con­sume nec­tar, par­tic­u­larly from Sym­pho­nia glob­u­lif­erae and Ochroma pyr­mi­dale (Porter 2001). Mem­bers of this species also eat in­sects, pri­mar­ily from the fam­ily Or­thoptera (crick­ets, grasshop­pers), as well as plant ex­u­dates (Porter 2001). Red-chested mus­tached tamarins do not have large, procum­bent in­cisors, so their con­sump­tion of most ex­u­dates is likely op­por­tunis­tic. Ex­u­dates of Parkia pen­dula, how­ever, exude resin from a bean-shaped fruit, and preda­tors do not re­quire teeth that can dam­age the tough plant to ob­tain its nu­tri­ents (Buchanan-Smith 1991). (Buchanan-Smith, 1991; Porter, 2001)

• Primary Diet
• herbivore
  • frugivore

• Animal Foods
• insects

• Plant Foods
• fruit
• nectar
• sap or other plant fluids

Pre­da­tion

Pre­da­tion of red-chested mus­tached tamarins is rarely ob­served in the wild. Crested ea­gles have been ob­served con­sum­ing in­fants of other spe­ices of tamarins (Vasquez and Hey­mann 2001). Po­ten­tial preda­tors are iden­ti­fied based on the alarm calls they elicit. An­i­mals known to elicit alarm calls from red-chested mus­tached tamarins in­clude: spec­ta­cled owls, great horned owls, tayras, ocelots, mar­gays, jaguarundi, jaguars, snakes of the fam­i­lies Boidae, Col­u­bri­dae, and Viperi­dae, as well as Ca­puchin mon­keys (Suarez 2007). (Suarez, 2007; Vasquez and Hey­mann, 2001)

Red-chested mus­tached tamarins de­crease their sus­cep­ti­bil­ity to pre­da­tion by form­ing groups, oc­ca­sion­ally with mem­bers of dif­fer­ent species. Multi-species groups usu­ally in­clude a group of an­other species of tamarin. Group for­ma­tion in­creases over­all vig­i­lance while de­creas­ing the amount of time each in­di­vid­ual must spend watch­ing for preda­tors (Hardie and Buchanan-Smith 1997). If a preda­tor is spot­ted, red-chested mus­tached tamarins pro­duce an alarm call to warn the oth­ers in their group (Suarez 2007).

The sleep­ing be­hav­ior of red-chested mus­tached tamarins also likely re­duces sus­cep­ti­bil­ity to pre­da­tion. Red-chested mus­tached tamarins choose sleep­ing sites high off the ground (12 to 20 m) where there are triple or quadru­ple forks in trees, aban­doned ter­mite mounds, or holes in trees so that they are not eas­ily vis­i­ble (Buchanan-Smith 1991). In ad­di­tion, these tamarins adopt a sleep­ing po­si­tion in which their head is tucked into their chest and their tail is wrapped around their body. This po­si­tion hides the white mark­ings on their face, mak­ing them more dif­fi­cult to spot (Buchanan-Smith 1991). (Buchanan-Smith, 1991; Hardie and Buchanan-Smith, 1997; Suarez, 2007)

• Known Predators

  • crested eagles Morphnus guianensis
  • spectacled owls Pulsatrix perspicillata
  • great horned owls Bubo virginianus
  • tayras Eira barbara
  • ocelots Leopardus pardalis
  • margays Leopardus wiedii
  • jaguarundi Herpailurus yaguarondi
  • jaguars Panthera onca
  • some boas and pythons (snakes) Boidae
  • some colubrids (snakes) Colubridae
  • some vipers (snakes) Viperidae
  • Capuchin monkeys Cebus

Ecosys­tem Roles

As fru­gi­vores, red-chested mus­tached tamarins likely dis­perse seeds of fruit trees from which they eat. Seeds are swal­lowed (Fer­arri 1993) and may be ex­creted later to dis­perse seeds, as has been seen in other species of Sagui­nus (Oliviera and Fer­rari 2000). Red-chested mus­tached tamarins also act as prey for a va­ri­ety of Ama­zon­ian preda­tors.

In Peru, red-chested mus­tached tamarins act as hosts to the parasties Athesmia het­erolecithoides, Fi­laroides bar­retoi, Pri­ma­sub­u­lura jac­chi, and Pros­thenorchis el­e­gans (Michaud 2003). (Fer­rari, et al., 1993; Michaud, et al., 2003; Oliviera and Fer­rari, 2000)

• Ecosystem Impact
• disperses seeds

Eco­nomic Im­por­tance for Hu­mans: Pos­i­tive

Red-chested mus­tached tamarins do not often in­ter­act with hu­mans in the wild, though they are oc­ca­sion­ally hunted or taken as pets (Wolfheim 1983). In cap­tiv­ity, they have proven quite use­ful in sci­en­tific study. Mon­keys of the genus Sagui­nus, in­clud­ing red-chested mus­tached tamarins, are sus­cep­ti­ble to the strain of He­pati­tis A that af­fects hu­mans. A por­tion of what we have learned re­gard­ing the pathol­ogy of He­pati­tis A has stemmed from the study of the dis­ease in these an­i­mals (Karayian­nis 1986). (Karayian­nis, et al., 1986; Wolfheim, 1983)

• Positive Impacts
• pet trade
• food
• research and education

Eco­nomic Im­por­tance for Hu­mans: Neg­a­tive

Red-chested mus­tached tamarins do not often in­ter­act with hu­mans, though it is pos­si­ble that, when in cap­tiv­ity, these an­i­mals could trans­mit par­a­sites to hu­mans (Michaud 2003). (Michaud, et al., 2003)

• Negative Impacts
• injures humans
  • carries human disease

Con­ser­va­tion Sta­tus

Pop­u­la­tions of red-chested mus­tached tamarins are sta­ble, and they are not con­sid­ered threat­ened. How­ever, it is pos­si­ble that de­for­esta­tion in Bo­livia could re­duce habi­tat (Mit­ter­meier and Wal­lace 2008). This species is not often hunted, though red-chested mus­tached tamarins are oc­ca­sion­ally be taken as pets (Mit­ter­meier and Wal­lace 2008). (Mit­ter­meier and Wal­lace, 2008)

• IUCN Red List

  Least Concern
  More information

• IUCN Red List

  Least Concern
  More information

• CITES

  Appendix II

Other Com­ments

A very re­cent study based on mi­to­chon­dr­ial ri­bo­so­mal RNA has re­vealed that red-chested mus­tached tamarins, Sagui­nus labi­a­tus, and mus­tached tamarins, S. mys­tax, are sis­ter taxa and only di­verged from one an­other ap­prox­i­mately 1.15 mil­lion years ago (Matauschek, Roos, and Hey­mann 2011). (Matauschek, et al., 2011)

Con­trib­u­tors

Nina Kristofik (au­thor), Yale Uni­ver­sity, Eric Sar­gis (ed­i­tor), Yale Uni­ver­sity, Gail Mc­Cormick (ed­i­tor), An­i­mal Di­ver­sity Web Staff.

Ref­er­ences

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Coates, A., T. Poole. 1983. The Be­hav­ior of the Cal­litrichid Mon­key, Sagui­nus labi­a­tus labi­a­tus, in the Lab­o­ra­tory. In­ter­na­tional Jour­nal of Pri­ma­tol­ogy, 4/4: 339-371.

Fer­rari, S., M. Lopes, E. Krause. 1993. Gut mor­phol­ogy of Cal­lithrix ni­gri­ceps and Sagui­nus labi­a­tus from west­ern Brazil­ian Ama­zo­nia. Jour­nal of Amer­i­can Phys­i­cal An­thro­pol­ogy, 90/4: 487-493.

Gar­ber, P., S. Leigh. 2001. Pat­terns of Po­si­tional Be­hav­ior in Mixed-Species Troops of Cal­lim­ico goeldii, Sagui­nus labi­a­tus, and Sagui­nus fus­ci­col­lis in North­west­ern Brazil. Amer­i­can Jour­nal of Pri­ma­tol­ogy, 54: 17-31.

Hardie, S., H. Buchanan-Smith. 1997. Vig­i­lance in Sin­gle- and Mixed-Species Groups of Tamarins (Sagui­nus labi­a­tus and Sagui­nus fus­ci­col­lis). In­ter­na­tional Jour­nal of Pri­ma­tol­ogy, 18/2: 217-234.

Her­skovitz, P. 1977. Liv­ing New World mon­keys (Platyrrhini): with an In­tro­duc­tion to Pri­mates. Chicago, Il: Uni­ver­sity of Chicago Press.

John­son, D. 2008. "The Life Spans of Non­hu­man Pri­mates" (On-line). Pri­mate Info Net. Ac­cessed March 16, 2011 at http://​pin.​primate.​wisc.​edu/​aboutp/​phys/​lifespan.​html.

Karayian­nis, P., T. Jowett, M. En­ti­cott, D. Moore, M. Pig­natelli, F. Brenes, P. Scheuer, H. Thomas. 1986. He­pati­tis A Virus Repli­ca­tion in Tamarins and Host Im­mune Re­sponse in Re­la­tion to Patho­gen­e­sis of Liver Cell Dam­age. Jour­nal of Med­ical Vi­rol­ogy, 18/3: 261-276.

Matauschek, C., C. Roos, E. Hey­mann. 2011. Mi­to­chon­dr­ial Phy­logeny of Tamarins (Sagui­nus, Hoff­mannsegg 1807) with Tax­o­nomic and Bio­geo­graphic Im­pli­ca­tions for the S. ni­gri­col­lis Species Group. Amer­i­can Jour­nal of Phys­i­cal An­thro­pol­ogy, 144: 564–574.

Michaud, C., M. Tan­ta­lean, C. Ique, E. Mon­toya, A. Gon­zalo. 2003. A sur­vey for helminth par­a­sites in feral New World non-hu­man pri­mate pop­u­la­tions and its com­par­i­son with par­a­sito­log­i­cal data from man in the re­gion. Jour­nal of Med­ical Pri­ma­tol­ogy, 32: 341-345.

Mit­ter­meier, R., R. Wal­lace. 2008. "Sagui­nus labi­a­tus" (On-line). IUCN Red List of Threat­ened Species. Ver­sion 2010.4. Ac­cessed April 17, 2011 at http://​www.​iucnredlist.​org/​apps/​redlist/​details/​41524/​0.

Nakamichi, M., K. Ya­mada. 2009. Dis­tri­b­u­tion of dor­sal car­riage among simi­ans. Pri­mates, 50: 153-168.

Oliviera, A., S. Fer­rari. 2000. Seed dis­per­sal by black-handed tamarins, Sagui­nus midas niger (Cal­litrichi­nae, Pri­mates): im­pli­ca­tions for the re­gen­er­a­tion of de­graded for­est habi­tats in east­ern Ama­zo­nia. Jour­nal of Trop­i­cal Ecol­ogy, 16: 709-716.

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