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long, sharp bill aids in food retrieval and eating insects. Corvus frugilegus frugilegus tends to have a longer, thicker beak than that of C. f. pastinator, as well as a larger area of bare skin covering the forehead, lores (skin between eye and bill on side of head), and gular area (skin that joins lower mandible to neck). Corvus frugilegus frugilegus also has a violet sheen to its black feathers, whereas C. f. pastinator has a greenish sheen. Juveniles of both subspecies are easily recognizable by their

Corvus corone carrion crow

glossy. The male and female look alike.Crows' feet are anisodactyl, with three forward-facing toes, and one back-facing toe. The wingspan of an adult carrion crow is between 84 and 100 cm. It looks very similar to an immature rook, Corvus frugilegus, but can be distinguished by the carrion crow's larger beak. It is nearly identical to a raven, Corvus corax, except for the carrion crow's much smaller size and lighter bill. Carrion crows form monogamous pairs, which stay together for life. They breed in early

Corvus caurinus north-western crow; northwestern crow

black to brown. Juveniles from 1 to 3 months have looser, fluffier feathers than adult or immature C. caurinus and their feathers are a dull black. They have blue eyes. Corvus caurinus can be distinguished from American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) because it is about 10% smaller, with smaller feet. It is also smaller than common ravens (C. corax), and while C. corax has a wedge-shaped tail, the tail of C. caurinus is squarish. Corvus corax also has shaggy throat-feathers which C. caurinus lacks. It is not

Corvus ossifragus fish crow

The geographic range of fish crows (Corvus ossifragus) is limited to the Nearctic range. Fish crows are native to the east coast of the United States but have been found as far west as Nebraska, Wyoming, Kansas and Iowa (Jorgenson et al., 2009). Their northern range extends to Maine and their southern range extends to Florida (McGowan, 2001).The migratory habits of fish crows have not been studied in depth. However, Hamel (1992) suggests that these crows utilize the coastal regions of their range in the

Corvus corax common raven

established nests on power-lines, in urban areas, and on billboards, to name only a few. Common ravens are large, black birds with a wedge-shaped tail. They have a well-developed ruff of feathers on the throat, which are called 'hackles' and are used often social communication. These are the largest passerines. Adults reach up to 69 cm in length and from 689 to 1625 grams in weight. They are generally distinguished from other Corvus species by their large size, more wedge-shaped tail, robust bill, a

Corvus brachyrhynchos American crow

more pointed than the wide, flat-ended feathers of adults. The wing and tail feathers of the young can become quite brown and ragged through the first winter and spring and only become darker and more glossy like adult feathers after the first molt.American crows are often confused with common ravens. American crows can be distinguished from common ravens (Corvus corax) most easily by size (ravens are much larger), by voice (ravens are hoarser), by the bill (ravens have heavier, "roman-nosed" bills), and by

Catoptrophorus semipalmatus willet

willets sometimes crouch or hide, rather than taking flight. Most predation on willets is on eggs and young. Adults are mainly taken by raptors, or terrestrial predators when they are on a nest. Reported predators on eggs include northern harriers (Circus cyaneus), Cooper's hawks (Accipiter cooperii), red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus), fish crows (Corvus ossifragus), common ravens (Corvus corax), American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos), raccoons (Procyon lotor), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), coyotes (Canis

Elanus leucurus white-tailed kite

are crows and other raptors. Crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) have been known to scavenge White-tailed Kite nests, destroying their eggs or even killing their young. If a Kite is threatened, they will let out a plaintive whistle attack a predator aerially, causing the predator to leave in a hurry. Elanus leucurus is a bird of prey, they feed on small mammals. White-tailed kites help manage the rodent populations including voles microtus, harvest mice Micromys minutus, and pocket gophers Geomyidae. They may

Agelaius tricolor tricolored blackbird; tricoloured blackbird

gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargentus) and skunks (Mephitis mephitis). Larger birds, such as common ravens (Corvus corax), black-crowned night herons (Nycticorax nycticorax), northern harriers (Circus cyaneus) and Cooper’s hawks (Accipiter cooperii) also prey on tricolored blackbirds. In more urban areas, feral cats (Felis catus) prey on nests. Tricolored blackbirds do not fight back against predators and tend to be less aggressive than red-winged blackbirds. Many tricolored blackbirds are dependent on rice

Melierax canorus pale chanting goshawk; pale chanting-goshawk

wild cats (Felis lybica), boomslangs (Dispholidus typus), martial eagles (Polemaetus bellicosus), and white-necked ravens (Corvus albicollis). Other potential nest predators include black shouldered kites (Elanus caeruleus), black crows (Corvus capensis), jackal buzzards (Buteo rufofuscus), and booted eagles (Hieraaetus pennatus). Predation generally occurs when nests are left unattended. In a polyandrous trio, there is normally always an adult watching the nest, making predation on the nest very rare. Pale

Euphagus cyanocephalus Brewer's blackbird

Lepidoptera), beetles (order Coleoptera), and other insects.Brewer's blackbirds do not store their food even when they feed on a range of waste grains, oats, rice, and corn. They get grains from agricultural fields. While drinking, Brewer's blackbirds put their beaks in water while flying, then raise their heads and swallow it on wing. Predators of Brewer's blackbirds include American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos), American badgers (Taxidea taxus), black-billed magpies (Pica hudsonia), bobcats (Lynx rufus

Egretta thula snowy egret

Known predators include: Procyon lotor (racoon), Bubo virginianus (great-horned owl), Strix varia (barred owl), Corvus brachyrhynchos (American crow), Corvus ossifragus (fish crow), Alligator mississippiensis (American alligator), Elaphe obsoleta (rat snake) and Buteogallus anthracinus (common black-hawk). Egretta thula serves as a biological indicator of ecosystem health and habitat quality. In marshes, bays, and swamp habitats, the absence of egrets may reflect disturbances in the ecosystem, such as

Thamnophis ordinoides Northwestern Garter Snake

These reversals create an optical illusion from the movement of their striped dorsal patterns, confusing potential predators. When touched, other species of garter snakes in the genus Thamnophis will defecate and excrete a foul-smelling fluid from their anal glands. It is believed northwestern garter snakes do as well. This is done as a last line of defense against predators that have successfully captured them.Suggested predators of northwestern garter snakes are American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos

Columbina passerina common ground dove; common ground-dove

of more than half of all nests in a particular area. Fish crows (Corvus ossifragus) and rat snakes (genus Pantheropis) are major predators. Since they make nests on the ground, they are susceptible to terrestrial predators such as bobcats (Lynx rufus), raccoons (Procyon lotor), skunks (family Mephitidae), opossums (order Didelphimorphia), and domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) and cats (Felis catus). Since nestlings are so vulnerable, the selection of proper nest sites is crucial for the survival of

Pica hudsonia black-billed magpie

grain crops and small mammals like mice and meadow voles. Black-billed magpies scavenge for carrion and are often seen along roadsides picking at roadkill and human refuse. Black-billed magpies dig small depressions in the ground or the snow to store food. Known predators of black-billed magpies include American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos), common ravens (Corvus corax), great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), northern harriers (Circus cyaneus), red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), Swainson’s hawks (Buteo

Falco biarmicus lanner falcon

to catch prey in flight. They are diurnal and do not migrate, but are known to range hundreds of miles from their breeding territory. Falco biarmicus is known to compete with Falco peregrinus, peregrin falcons, for both prey and nest sites. It also competes with ravens (Corvus corax). We do not have information on home range for this species at this time. Like all raptors, Falco biarmicus relies mostly on its keen sense of sight to hunt prey both in the air and on the ground. It has a variety of calls for

Gopherus agassizii (Californian) Desert Tortoise

bobcats (Lynx rufus), badgers (Taxidea taxus), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), common ravens (Corvus corax), greater roadrunners (Geococcyx californianus), and Gila monsters (Heloderma suspectum). Female desert tortoises may deter egg predators by guarding their eggs for some time after laying, but hatchlings and juveniles must rely heavily on camouflage and the use of shelters to keep themselves safe. All desert tortoises, large and small, will urinate as a last resort when handled. Desert tortoises are

Graptemys ouachitensis Ouachita Map Turtle

are preyed on by red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), crows (genus Corvus), North American river otters (Lontra canadensis), and ring-billed gulls (Larus delawarensis). Raccoons (Procyon lotor) may predate up to 90% of local nests. Fly larvae (order Diptera) will eat their way into the eggs and eat hatchlings before they can hatch. Humans (Homo sapiens) also are responsible for the mortality of adult turtles. In the Mississippi River, commercial fishing nets catch and kill adult females. Ouachita map turtles are

Passerina amoena lazuli bunting

regarded as true bugs. Lazuli buntings have been seen feeding from bird feeders. Predators of lazuli buntings include raptors such as Cooper’s hawk (Accipiter cooperii) and the sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus). Other species such as domestic cats (Felis catus) attack buntings at birds feeders. Eggs and chicks are preyed upon by other birds, like American crows Corvus brachyrhynchos, common ravens Corvus corax, and black-billed magpies Pica pica. Snakes and several mammal species (red squirrels

Pseudemys texana Texas River Cooter

are nest predators. Additional predators at any age include red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), laughing gulls (Larus atricilla), American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) and raccoons.Raccoons are recorded as the most prolific nest predator for Texas river cooters. Fire ants also prey on female river cooters on land and actively digging nests. Irritation from the fire ants may cause the female river cooters to stop nesting and return to the water, keeping them from completing the

Geronticus eremita northern bald ibis; waldrapp

male have a deeper call than the female. When at the nest they use a visual perception to help identify a threat that may be coming after the eggs. The northern bald ibis diet consists of insects, spiders, worms, small birds, fish, small mammals, and reptiles such as lizards and desert snakes. The northern bald ibis may also consume carrion. The population in Syria has been reduced due to the chick loss from the brown necked raven (Corvus ruficollis) and the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus

Tympanuchus phasianellus sharp-tailed grouse

skunks (Mephitis mephitis), bullsnakes (Pituophis catenifer sayi), ground squirrels (Spermophilus), black-billed magpies (Pica pica), American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos), and common ravens (Corvus corax). The sharp-tailed grouse are affected by the following actoparasites include lice (Goniodes nerbraskensis, Armyrsidea megalosoma, Lagopoecus perplexus). Internal parasites include tapeworms (Rhabdometra millicolis, Raillietina centrocerci), roundworms (Oxyspriura petrowi, Dispharynx nasuta, Subulura

Anas discors blue-winged teal

jamaicensis), coyotes (Canis latrans), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), American badgers (Taxidea taxus), American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos), black-billed magpies (Pica hudsonia), and Franklin's ground squirrels (Spermophilus franklinii). Most blue-winged teal live mutualistically with other dabbling ducks. There are many parasites that infect this species, including Pasteurella multocida (avian cholera), and protozoans, such as Cyanthocotyle bushiensis and Spahaeridotreme globulus. Blue-winged teal

Grus antigone Sarus crane

vegetation of natural wetlands but will also forage on the wet crops of rice and wheat. Sarus cranes also consume soybean and cucumber crops, and show preference to these crops. They have also been known to feed on aquatic vertebrates and invertebrates. Jackals (Canus aurius) and house crows (Corvus splendens) have been recorded to prey on crane eggs and adults. Both of these predators are opportunistic. Wild dogs also prey on eggs and fledglings. It appears that these birds are common targets in human

Vanellus vanellus northern lapwing

greatest earthworm densities and arable lands provide the fewest opportunities for foraging (Sheldon et al., 2004). Diurnal avians such as carrion crows (Corvus corone), great black-backed gulls (Larus marinus), stoats (Mustela erminea), and herring gulls (Larus argentatus) are primary predators of lapwings eggs. Nocturnal, terrestrial predators include red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and domestic cats (Felis catus). Nests are defended communally against these predators using active anti-predator responses

Spermophilus townsendii Townsend's ground squirrel

latrans), long-tailed weasels (Mustela frenata), prairie falcons (Falco mexicanus), red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicencis), rough-legged buzzards (Buteo lagopus), ferruginous hawks (Buteo regalis), Swainson's hawks (Buteo swainsoni), ravens (Corvus corax), prairie rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridus), and northern pine snakes (Pituophis melanoleucus). They are also eaten by Piute Indians. Townsend's ground squirrels are hosts to several parasites, primarily intestinal. Parasites include several species of fleas

Graptemys flavimaculata Yellow-blotched Map Turtle

nests. These predators include fish crows (Corvus ossifragus; especially on sand bars), but other nest predators include red imported fire ants (Solenopsis invicta), speckled kingsnakes (Lampropeltis getula), raccoons (Procyon lotor), feral pigs (Sus scrofa), nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus), and gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus). Ernst and Lovich (2009) reported that speckled kingsnakes are able to consume the eggs of multiple nests at one time. Fish crows will fly along and above sandbars

Garrulus glandarius Eurasian jay

other corvids, like Corvus and Pica species, Eurasian jays hold their tail rather high. For this reason the tail feathers incur less damage than in the other genera. Unlike other corvids, Eurasian jays have two plumage phases: juvenile and adult. Other corvids can be aged by a sequence of plumages, but ageing is more difficult in Eurasian jays. They lose their juvenile plumage by autumn of the first year, so birds seen in autumn all appear to be adults. Eurasian jay average basal metabolic rate is 4.99 kJ

Podiceps grisegena red-necked grebe

too large or difficult to handle they may bring it to the surface before consuming it. They are also known to capture low flying insects out of the air. Predators such as American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos), common ravens (Corvus corax), gulls, bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), American coots (Fulica americana), raccoons (Procyon lotor), minks (Neovison and Mustela), and muskrats (Ondatra zibethicus) are known to feed on red-necked grebes eggs and chicks. When small and young are not upon their

Bubo virginianus great horned owl

Sometimes crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) or raccoons (Procyon lotor) eat their eggs, however. Reproduction of great horned owls is heavily dependent upon prey availability. For example, populations increase when numbers of its primary prey the snowshoe hare, Lepus americanus, were highest. When snowshoe hare abundance lowered, so did the number of great horned owls. Great horned owls are at risk for parasitism, though it is not always lethal. They can be afflicted with avian malaria if bitten by an infected

Nestor notabilis kea

remain alert for air attacks when foraging, and they band together to chase falcons that threaten a member of their group. Kea, being opportunistic, generalist foragers, are primary, secondary, and higher-level consumers. In the past, kea probably had an array of competitors, such as kaka (Nestor meridionalis), moa (Anomalopteryx, Dinornis, Emeus, Euryapteryx, Megalapteryx, and Pachyornis spp.), kakapo (Strigops habroptilus), takahe (Porphyrio mantelli), and New Zealand ravens (Corvus moriorum). But human

Anaxyrus exsul Black Toad

found to eat black toads. Common ravens (Corvus corax), Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana), and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) have been reported hunting black toads from their breeding sites. The toads can emit a toxic secretion from their parotid glands for defense. Black toads’ predators include larger mammals, birds, and fish. Black toads prey on insects such as ants (family Formicidae) and beetles (order Coleoptera). Unknown intestinal roundworms (order Nematoda) have been found in black toads

Falco mexicanus prairie falcon

are found in forested habitats in Canada during migrations as well. In winter, prairie falcons prefer open desert and grassland habitats. Prairie falcons breed in open, arid grasslands with cliffs and bluffs for nesting. Nesting sites are commonly shared with common ravens (Corvus corax), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), and red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis). Prairie falcons are large, pale brown falcons with squarish heads and large, dark eyes. Characteristic facial features include black malar

Acridotheres tristis common myna

Common mynas eat small mammals, such as mice, as well as lizards and small snakes. They also eat spiders, earthworms, and crabs. Common mynas eat mostly grains and fruit, but also feed on flower nectar and petals. Common nest predators of common mynas are house crows (Corvus splendens) and house cats (Felis silvestris). Javan mongooses (Herpestes javanicus) raid nests to take nestlings and eggs. Humans (Homo sapiens) in some of the Pacific Islands also eat common mynas. Common mynas roost together for

Parabuteo unicinctus Harris's hawk

is encouraged by the dense brush and thorny nature of their habitat. There is some evidence that these hawks may feed on carrion if food availability is low. Great horned owls (Bubo virginianus) pose the greatest predation threat to this species, but coyotes (Canis latrans) and common ravens (Corvus corax) also threaten young hawks. Female Harris' hawks utilize helpers to protect their nests. The helpers perch in saguaros and scan the surroundings for predators. They tend to become excited and will use an

Tyrannus tyrannus eastern kingbird

taken by aerial predators, such as American kestrels (Falco sparverius). Eastern kingbirds are aggressive and will energetically attack perceived threats, such as large hawks, crows, blue jays, squirrels, and snakes, whenever they are nearby. They will dive at a threat with their crest raised, exposing the red crown feathers, and with the mouth wide open, exposing their bright red gape. They will repeatedly attack the threat until they retreat. Eggs and nestlings are preyed on by crows (Corvus), blue jays

Sternotherus carinatus Razorback Musk Turtle

eggs and hatchlings suffer the most predation, but adults of this species are small enough to be preyed on as well. Eggs are eaten by raccoons (Procyon lotor) and skunks (Mephitis). Hatchlings and juveniles are vulnerable to a wide array of aquatic predators including predacious diving beetles (Dystiscidae), freshwater bass (Micropterus), bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus), snakes like kingsnakes (Lampropeltis getula) and cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorus), and birds of prey such as crows (Corvus) and

Terrapene ornata Ornate Box Turtle

many known predators. Because western box turtles spend the majority of their lives inactive in underground burrows, they are easily targeted by predators. Common predators include coyotes (Canis latrans), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), white necked ravens (Corvus cryptoleucus), crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos), copperheads (Agkistrodon contortrix), raccoons (Procyon lotor), Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana), American minks (Mustela vison), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), and dogs (Canis lupus

Gallinago gallinago common snipe

larvae (0.6%), and spiders (0.6%). Common snipes are hunted for food and sport. In most of Europe, the annual estimation for hunted snipes averages to about 1,500,000, making humans Homo sapiens a predator.An 8-year field study in northern England watched changes in the abundance of five ground-nesting birds, including common snipes. Fletcher et al. (2010) found that the red fox Vulpes vulpes, carrion crow Corvus corone, and ermine Mustela erminea are known predators of snipes. Parasites include blood

Osteopilus septentrionalis Cuban Treefrog

tropical house geckos (Hemidactylus mabouia) and Florida brown snakes (Storeria victa). This frog species is an ambush predator. As a tadpole, it primarily feeds on algae, but is known to engage in cannibalism. Rat snakes (Pantherophis), eastern garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis), ribbon snakes (Thamnophis sauritus), black racers (Coluber constrictor), American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos), Cuban knight anoles (Anolis equestris), and humans (Homo sapiens) are known predators of Cuban treefrogs. Tadpoles

Glyptemys muhlenbergii Bog Turtle

unnaturally high population levels of certain human-adapted predators such as raccoons (Procyon lotor) and common crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) complicate conservation efforts for bog turtles.Like many turtle species, bog turtles have a life history strategy that balances low fecundity, high egg and hatchling mortality, and relatively late maturity, with the potential long reproductive lifespan of the adults. While populations can increase and thrive in ideal habitat, this reproductive strategy limits the

Caprimulgus europaeus Eurasian nightjar; European nightjar

accumulated before migration to aid in the journey south. Caprimulgus europaeus is preyed on by various owls (Strigiformes) and raptors (Falconiformes), as well as adders (Vipera berus). Foxes (Vulpes vulpes), hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus), dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), magpies (Pica), crows (Corvus), and Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius), prey on European nightjar eggs. The extreme cryptic markings of this species allow individuals to conceal themselves in broad daylight by perching motionless on a

Anas strepera gadwall

Polygonum spp.), bulrush (Scirpus spp.), spikerush (Eleocharis spp.), saltgrass (Distichlis spp.) and muskgrass (Chara spp.). The Gadwall has many predators, including: humans from hunting and urban accidents, fox (Vulpes spp.), raccoons (Procyon lotor), coyotes (Canis latrans), badgers (Taxidea taxus), weasels (Mustela spp.), hawks (Accipitridae), crows (Corvus spp.), and minks (Mustela vison). (Tesky 1993).Gadwalls are most vulnerable when females are nesting and when the males are molting from alternate

Oxyura jamaicensis ruddy duck

nest predators. Females may sometimes perform a display to distract predators away from nests. Females and nestlings are cryptically colored.Eggs and nestlings are taken by predators such as racoons (Procyon lotor), mink (Mustela vison), American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos), black-crowned night herons (Nycticorax nycticorax), ring-billed gulls (Larus delawarensis), and California gulls (Larus californicus). Adults are preyed on by red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), great horned owls (Bubo virginianus

Plegadis chihi white-faced ibis

different predators, including gull species (Larus), black-billed magpies (Pica pica), black-crowned night herons (Nycticorax nycticorax), common ravens (Corvus corax), raccoons (Procyon lotor), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), spotted skunks (Spilogale putorius), coyotes (Canis latrans), mink (Neovison vison), and long-tailed weasels (Mustela frenata). Mammals are more likely to become predators when water levels around nests fall, making access to the nest easier. Peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus

Thamnophis marcianus Checkered Garter Snake

Bird predators include American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) and grey hawks (Buteo plagiatus). Mammalian predators include striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), raccoons (Procyon lotor), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and domestic cats (Felis catus). They are also preyed upon by milk snakes (Lampropeltis tringulum). Humans (Homo sapiens) are also a predator to checkered garter snakes; their uniquely-patterned skin is often used to make clothing and accessories. Checkered garter snakes feed on many small animals

Chersina angulata South African Bowsprit Tortoise, Angulate Tortoise

known to eat snails, insects, moss, mushrooms and the occasional animal feces (Harris, 2018). C. angulata have no teeth, so all their food is eaten in small bites using their beak. Angulate tortoises have many natural small animal predators, including small carnivores (such as jackals, mongoose, badgers) predatory birds, baboons and more. Fiscal shrikes (Lanius collaris) impale hatchlings on thorns, and the hatchlings are also targeted by Pied Crows (Corvus albus) (Hofmeyr, 2009). There is currently no

Falco rusticolus gyrfalcon

arrive at nesting sites near the beginning of March. Pair bonding occurs for about 6 weeks and subsequently the eggs are usually laid near the end of April.Gyrfalcons do not construct their own stick nests in trees (although old common raven (Corvus corax) stick nests in trees are sometimes used), and usually find suitable nesting sites on cliff faces where there is a shelf with an overhang. Nest sites are used year after year and accumulate prey remain piles, while the rocks turn white from excessive guano

Tachycineta thalassina violet-green swallow

such as gallflies, but did not eat honeybees. The average size of prey that violet-green swallows targeted was less than 5 mm in length. Violet-green swallow eggs and hatchlings are vulnerable to predation by bears (genus Ursus), American Crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos), American Kestrels (Falco sparverius), snakes (suborder Serpentes), and mammals (class Mammalia) such as raccoons (Procyon lotor). Adult violet-green swallows are susceptible to predation in flight by hawks, falcons and kestrels. Adult violet

Spizella passerina chipping sparrow

variety of avian and mammalian predators and snakes. Nest predators include black rat snakes (Elaphe obsoleta), eastern milk snakes (Lampropeltis triangulum), blue racers (Coluber constrictor), common garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis), American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos), blue jays (Cyanocitta cristata), and domestic cats (Felis catus). Adults are taken in flight or when on the nest, largely by avian predators, but including Cooper's hawks (Accipiter cooperi), prairie falcons (Falco mexicanus