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Aethina tumida

By Justine Negron

Geographic Range

Small hive beetles (Aethina tumida) are endemic to sub-Saharan Africa, which is a part of the larger Ethiopian biogeographic region. Through human import activities, these beetles have spread to the Neartic region, the Palearctic region, and the Australian region. (Amos, et al., 2022; Aydin, 2022; Downey, et al., 2015; Ellis and Ellis, 2010; Ellis, et al., 2002; Namin, et al., 2019; Ouessou Idrissou, et al., 2019; Plant Health Australia, 2023; Stuhl and Teal, 2023; Texas Apiary Inspection Service, 2023; Torgerson, et al., 2016)

Habitat

Small hive beetles prefer humid, warm terrestrial areas of the sub-Saharan region of Africa or anywhere else in the world with similar climatic conditions. Typically, they are found living within honey bee colonies, but they may also be found living in other bee colonies or outside a colony in fruits or rotting meat. Their native region of sub-Saharan Africa consists of tropical and nontropical grasslands and savannahs, along with different types of scrublands and tropical forests. (Amos, et al., 2022; Aydin, 2022; Ellis and Ellis, 2010; Hoffmann, et al., 2008; Huang, et al., 2019; Namin, et al., 2019; Neumann, et al., 2018; Ouessou Idrissou, et al., 2019; Plant Health Australia, 2023; Stuhl and Teal, 2023; Texas Apiary Inspection Service, 2023; Torgerson, et al., 2016; Wilson and Primack, 2023)

Physical Description

Adult small hive beetles are small insects, ranging between 5 to 7 mm in length. They have three pairs of walking legs, two antennae, and two pairs of wings. Females are slightly longer and heavier than males. Small hive beetle coloration ranges from a red-yellow tinged brown to a rich, darker brown or black. They are bilaterally symmetrical, meaning the animal can be divided into two identical halves. These beetles are also ectothermic, meaning they use environmental heat to maintain an optimal body temperature. Younger small hive beetles look completely different from adults. As eggs, these beetles are pure white and have an oblong shape. As larvae, the beetles are an off-white color and have a worm-like segmented appearance. As pupae, small hive beetles start off with an off-white color that darkens to brown as the exoskeleton forms. They look more adult-like in body shape. (Aydin, 2022; de Guzman, et al., 2020; Ellis and Ellis, 2010; Plant Health Australia, 2023; Torgerson, et al., 2016)

  • Sexual Dimorphism
  • female larger
  • Range length
    5 to 7 mm
    0.20 to 0.28 in

Development

Small hive beetles undergo metamorphosis, a process where an organism goes through several distinct stages of growth and development to become an adult. First, these beetles begin life as eggs. These eggs are typically laid within small spaces or brood cells of a bee hive. Sometimes, eggs are laid in small crevices or places away from a hive like fruits or meat. The eggs will hatch within six days if humidity levels are greater than 34%. After the eggs hatch, the beetles begin the larval stage. As larvae, the beetles start to eat whatever they can and tunnel through the hive. Typically, larvae eat honey, pollen, and honeybee brood cells, areas containing bee eggs and larvae. Small hive beetle larval feeding generally lasts between 10-16 days. Sometimes, they will eat a little over a month. After the larvae have eaten enough, they enter the wondering phase. The larvae leave the hive, venturing as far as 200 m, to find suitable, moist soil to pupate. Once they find good soil, larvae burrow 5-20 cm beneath the soil and create a smooth-walled chamber for the process to occur. Pupations take about 2-20 weeks, depending on how warm and moist the soil is. When the beetles finish pupating, they emerge as adult beetles. The process starts over with adult beetles flying as far as 15 km or more to infect a new honeybee hive. (Amos, et al., 2022; Aydin, 2022; Downey, et al., 2015; Ellis and Ellis, 2010; Namin, et al., 2019; Neumann, et al., 2018; Papach, et al., 2023; Plant Health Australia, 2023; Stuhl and Teal, 2023)

Reproduction

Small hive beetles are polygynandrous, meaning that both females and males mate with multiple partners. (de Guzman, et al., 2020; Papach, et al., 2023)

Small hive beetles reproduce sexually, meaning there are two separate sexes, male and female, and both contribute genetic material to make offspring via mating. These beetles take 3-12 weeks to reach adulthood and become sexually mature approximately a week after becoming an adult. This species is oviparous, meaning eggs are released from the female to develop outside her body. Typically, females lay about 165 eggs per day after copulation with at least one male, and produce 1000-2000 eggs in an entire lifetime. Eggs are laid in clusters of 10-30 within spaces of a bee hive. Eggs can also be laid on fruits and meat. Females lay eggs using an ovipositor, a tube-like organ. Small hive beetles can produce year-round; however, populations are highest in summer. During colder months, these beetles seek out strong hives for the body heat produced from a highly dense bee population. During warmer months, they find weaker hives to infest and reproduce. (Aydin, 2022; de Guzman, et al., 2020; Ellis and Ellis, 2010; Neumann, et al., 2018; Papach, et al., 2023; Plant Health Australia, 2023; Texas Apiary Inspection Service, 2023; Torgerson, et al., 2016)

  • Breeding season
    year-round
  • Range time to independence
    3 to 12 weeks
  • Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
    1 to 7 (after becoming an adult) days
  • Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
    1 to 7 (after becoming an adult) days

The literature does not report on parental investment for this species.

Lifespan/Longevity

In the wild, small hive beetles live for about 7-9 months or more. Maturation from egg to adult roughly takes 3-12 weeks, depending on temperature conditions. Higher temperatures quicken the development process. Adults can then live for about 6 months or more. In captivity, these beetles can live for about a year. (Aydin, 2022; Bobadoye, et al., 2018; de Guzman, et al., 2020; Downey, et al., 2015; Ellis and Ellis, 2010; Papach, et al., 2023; Plant Health Australia, 2023; Texas Apiary Inspection Service, 2023; Torgerson, et al., 2016)

  • Typical lifespan
    Status: wild
    7 to 9 months
  • Typical lifespan
    Status: captivity
    12 (high) months

Behavior

Small hive beetles are motile and can fly between 15 and 24 km to find a bee hive to infest. They are parasitic, feeding on bee broods, honey, and pollen and potentially destroying a hive altogether. Moreover, these beetles are colonial. They live in groups with many hive beetles infiltrating a hive at one time and reproducing. (Aydin, 2022; Bobadoye, et al., 2018; Downey, et al., 2015; Ellis, et al., 2002; Huang, et al., 2019; Ouessou Idrissou, et al., 2019; Plant Health Australia, 2023; Stuhl and Teal, 2023; Texas Apiary Inspection Service, 2023)

Communication and Perception

Small hive beetles communicate through pheromones and perceive their environment through chemical cues. They find beehives to infest by detecting the smell of honey, pollen, and adult bees in a colony. Moreover, small hive beetles can detect the special alarm pheromone that honey bees produce, which also allows them to find hives. The beetles carry a yeast called Kodamaea omheri on their bodies that can mimic the alarm pheromone when combined with pollen, attracting more beetles. These beetles can even recognize organic compounds in fruits, allowing them to find, infest, and eat them. (Amos, et al., 2022; Bobadoye, et al., 2018; Ellis and Ellis, 2010; Huang, et al., 2019; Plant Health Australia, 2023; Stuhl and Teal, 2023; Texas Apiary Inspection Service, 2023)

Food Habits

Small hive beetles are primarily insectivores, eating bee eggs, bee larvae, dead bees, and the honey the bees produce throughout a colony. These beetles also feed on nectar, pollen, and fruits. (Amos, et al., 2022; Aydin, 2022; Downey, et al., 2015; Ellis and Ellis, 2010; Huang, et al., 2019; Plant Health Australia, 2023; Texas Apiary Inspection Service, 2023)

  • Animal Foods
  • eggs
  • body fluids
  • insects
  • Plant Foods
  • fruit
  • nectar
  • pollen

Predation

Small hive beetles have rigid front wings called elytra and a layer of chitin surrounding their body. Both protect the beetles from being stung by bees in a hive. Also, these beetles are small and can find tiny crevices within a hive to hide, feed, and reproduce. Bees can confine the beetles to one space and prevent mobility; however, the beetles can rub their antennae on a bee's mandibles, causing them to regurgitate food for the beetles to eat so they do not starve. This is a form of behavioral mimicry where the beetles copy the social insect behavior trophallaxis. Trophallaxis is the exchange of food between two organisms within a colony. Moreover, known predators of this species include roundworms (Nematoda), entomopathogenic fungi, ants, and birds. (Aydin, 2022; Amos, et al., 2022; Aydin, 2022; Burlew, 2023; De Marco and Farina, 2003; Downey, et al., 2015; Ellis and Ellis, 2010; Ellis, et al., 2002; Plant Health Australia, 2023; Stuhl and Teal, 2023; Texas Apiary Inspection Service, 2023; Torgerson, et al., 2016)

  • Anti-predator Adaptations
  • mimic

Ecosystem Roles

Small hive beetles are parasites. They infiltrate beehives to live and reproduce. Adults and larvae eat bee broods, honey, and pollen within a hive, weakening and destroying hives. Their excrement contains a yeast, which causes honey to ferment and take on a slime-like appearance. Hosts of this species include the following: western honey bees (Apis mellifera), bumble bees like common eastern bumble bees (Bombus impatiens), stingless bees (Meliponini), and the African honey bee subspecies (Apis mellifera scutellata). Alternatively, entomopathogenic fungi can use these beetles as hosts and kill them. (Aydin, 2022; Bobadoye, et al., 2018; Downey, et al., 2015; Ellis and Ellis, 2010; Ellis, et al., 2002; Hoffmann, et al., 2008; Huang, et al., 2019; Namin, et al., 2019; Neumann, et al., 2018; Ouessou Idrissou, et al., 2019; Papach, et al., 2023; Plant Health Australia, 2023; Stuhl and Teal, 2023; Texas Apiary Inspection Service, 2023)

Species Used as Host
  • western honey bees (Apis mellifera)
  • common eastern bumble bees (Bombus impatiens)
  • stingless bees (Meliponini)
  • African honey bee subspecies (Apis mellifera scutellata)
Commensal/Parasitic Species
  • entomopathogenic fungi

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

The literature does not report on the positive economic importance of small hive beetles.

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

Small hive beetles are dangerous to the bee and honey industry, especially in areas outside of their native region. Their native African region only classifies them as a minor pest, unlike other regions where they have become invasive. Their larvae release a yeast (Kodamaea omheri) through defecation, which causes honey within hives to ferment and become unfit for human consumption. Both larvae and adult hive beetles also eat bee broods, potentially destroying beehives altogether. Additionally, small hive beetles can infest and reproduce on certain fruits like melons or strawberries, making them fruit pests as well. (Aydin, 2022; Bobadoye, et al., 2018; de Guzman, et al., 2020; Downey, et al., 2015; Ellis and Ellis, 2010; Huang, et al., 2019; Namin, et al., 2019; Ouessou Idrissou, et al., 2019; Plant Health Australia, 2023; Texas Apiary Inspection Service, 2023; Torgerson, et al., 2016)

  • Negative Impacts
  • crop pest

Conservation Status

Small hive beetles have no special conservation status.

Other Comments

Small hive beetles belong to the family Nitidulidae, otherwise called sap beetles. This family typically feeds on sap and fruits and includes 4,500 species of beetle. (Huang, et al., 2019; Stuhl and Teal, 2023)

Contributors

Justine Negron (author), Colorado State University, Tanya Dewey (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.

Glossary

Australian

Living in Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, New Guinea and associated islands.

World Map

Ethiopian

living in sub-Saharan Africa (south of 30 degrees north) and Madagascar.

World Map

Nearctic

living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.

World Map

Palearctic

living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.

World Map

carnivore

an animal that mainly eats meat

chemical

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

colonial

used loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies. More specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits (a continuous, modular society) - as in clonal organisms.

fertilization

union of egg and spermatozoan

forest

forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.

insectivore

An animal that eats mainly insects or spiders.

introduced

referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.

metamorphosis

A large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows. In insects, "incomplete metamorphosis" is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form, and "complete metamorphosis" is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms. Butterflies have complete metamorphosis, grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis.

mimicry

imitates a communication signal or appearance of another kind of organism

motile

having the capacity to move from one place to another.

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

oviparous

reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.

parasite

an organism that obtains nutrients from other organisms in a harmful way that doesn't cause immediate death

pheromones

chemicals released into air or water that are detected by and responded to by other animals of the same species

polygynandrous

the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males, each of which also pairs with several different females.

sexual

reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female

terrestrial

Living on the ground.

tropical

the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.

tropical savanna and grassland

A terrestrial biome. Savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy. Extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical Africa and South America, and in Australia.

savanna

A grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees, a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest. See also Tropical savanna and grassland biome.

temperate grassland

A terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes (>23.5° N or S latitude). Vegetation is made up mostly of grasses, the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available. Fire and grazing are important in the long-term maintenance of grasslands.

year-round breeding

breeding takes place throughout the year

References

Amos, B., M. Furlong, D. Leemon, B. Cribb, R. Hayes. 2022. Small hive beetle, Aethina tumida (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae): chemical profile of the cuticle and possible chemical mimicry in a honeybee (Apis mellifera) pest. Apidologie, 53 (1): 7. Accessed July 07, 2023 at https://doi.org/10.1007/s13592-022-00921-w.

Aydin, L. 2022. Aethina tumida (Small Hive Beetle; SHB) and Tropilaelaps spp. Mite; an emerging threat to Turkey Honey Bees. Veterinary Journal of Ankara University, 69 (3): 347-354. Accessed June 29, 2023 at https://ezproxy2.library.colostate.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=cookie,ip,url,cpid&custid=s4640792&db=asn&AN=157805984&site=ehost-live.

Bobadoye, B., A. Fombong, N. Kiatoko, R. Suresh, P. Teal, D. Salifu, B. Torto. 2018. Behavioral responses of the small hive beetle, Aethina tumida, to odors of three meliponine bee species and honey bees, Apis mellifera scutellata.. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 166 (7): 528-534. Accessed July 14, 2023 at https://ezproxy2.library.colostate.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=cookie,ip,url,cpid&custid=s4640792&db=asn&AN=131499719&site=ehost-live.

Burlew, R. 2023. "What is trophallaxis?" (On-line). Honey Bee Suite: A Better Way to Bee. Accessed July 16, 2023 at https://www.honeybeesuite.com/wednesday-word-of-the-week-trophallaxis/.

De Marco, R., W. Farina. 2003. Trophallaxis in forager honeybees (Apis mellifera): resource uncertainty enhances begging contacts?. Journal of Comparative Physiology A, 189: 125-134. Accessed July 16, 2023 at 10.1007/s00359-002-0382-y.

Downey, D., S. Chun, P. Follett. 2015. Radiobiology of small hive beetle (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) and prospects for management using sterile insect releases. Journal of Economic Entomology, 108 (3): 868–872. Accessed July 08, 2023 at https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/tov068.

Ellis, J., C. Pirk, H. Hepburn, G. Kastberger, P. Elzen. 2002. Small hive beetles survive in honeybee prisons by behavioural mimicry. Naturwissenschaften, 89: 326–328. Accessed July 16, 2023 at https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00114-002-0326-y.

Ellis, J., A. Ellis. 2010. "Common name: small hive beetle scientific name: Aethina tumida Murray (Insecta: Coleoptera: Nitidulidae)" (On-line). Featured Creatures: Entomology & Nematology. Accessed June 29, 2023 at https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/misc/bees/small_hive_beetle.htm.

Hoffmann, D., J. Pettis, P. Neumann. 2008. Potential host shift of the small hive beetle (Aethina tumida) to bumblebee colonies (Bombus impatiens). Insectes Sociaux, 55: 153 – 162. Accessed July 17, 2023 at https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00040-008-0982-9#citeas.

Huang, Q., D. Lopez, J. Evans. 2019. Shared and unique microbes between Small hive beetles (Aethina tumida) and their honey bee hosts. Microbiologyopen, 8 (10): e899. Accessed July 07, 2023 at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6813432/.

Namin, S., Y. Koh, A. Osabutey, C. Jung. 2019. Invasion pathway of the honeybee pest, small hive beetle, Aethina tumida (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) in the Republic of Korea inferred by mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology, 22 (3): 963-968. Accessed June 30, 2023 at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aspen.2019.07.008.

Neumann, P., S. Spiewok, J. Pettis, S. Radloff, R. Spooner-Hart, R. Hepburn. 2018. Differences in absconding between African and European honeybee subspecies facilitate invasion success of small hive beetles. Apidologie, 49: 527–537. Accessed July 17, 2023 at https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13592-018-0580-4.

Ouessou Idrissou, F., L. Straub, P. Neumann. 2019. Keeping a low profile: small hive beetle reproduction in African honeybee colonies. Agricultural & Forest Entomology, 21 (1): 136-138. Accessed June 30, 2023 at https://ezproxy2.library.colostate.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=cookie,ip,url,cpid&custid=s4640792&db=asn&AN=133893760&site=ehost-live.

Papach, A., A. Beaurepaire, O. Yañez, M. Huwiler, G. Williams, P. Neumann. 2023. Multiple mating by both sexes in an invasive insect species, Aethina tumida (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae). Insect Science, 30: 517–529. Accessed July 08, 2023 at https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1744-7917.13112.

Plant Health Australia, 2023. "Small hive beetle" (On-line). BeeAware. Accessed June 30, 2023 at https://beeaware.org.au/archive-pest/small-hive-beetle/#ad-image-0.

Stuhl, C., P. Teal. 2023. A potential pheromone for the mass trapping of Aethina tumida (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae). The Florida entomologist, 106 (2): 83-89. Accessed June 29, 2023 at https://ezproxy2.library.colostate.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=cookie,ip,url,cpid&custid=s4640792&db=asn&AN=164480369&site=ehost-live.

Texas Apiary Inspection Service, 2023. "Small Hive Beetle" (On-line). Texas Apiary Inspection Service: Texas A&M Agrilife Research. Accessed July 02, 2023 at https://txbeeinspection.tamu.edu/small-hive-beetle/.

Torgerson, K., C. Breece, R. Sagili, D. Caron. 2016. "The Small Hive Beetle: A Potential Pest in Honey Bee Colonies in Oregon" (On-line). OSU Extension Service. Accessed July 02, 2023 at https://catalog.extension.oregonstate.edu/em9143/html.

Wilson, J., R. Primack. 2023. "2.1: Sub-Saharan Africa’s Natural Environment" (On-line). LibreTexts: Biology. Accessed July 02, 2023 at https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Ecology/Conservation_Biology_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa_(Wilson_and_Primack)/02%3A_Introduction_to_Sub-Saharan_Africa/2.01%3A_Sub-Saharan_Africas_Natural_Environment#:~:text=Tropical%20and%20subtropical%20savannahs%20and,are%20included%20in%20this%20ecosystem..

de Guzman, L., A. Frake, T. Rinderer, D. Pollet, W. Richardson, D. Boethel, P. Coreil. 2020. "Small Hive Beetles" (On-line). Agriculture Research Service: U.S. Department of Agriculture. Accessed July 07, 2023 at https://www.ars.usda.gov/southeast-area/baton-rouge-la/honeybeelab/docs/small-hive-beetles/#:~:text=SHB%20eats%20everything%20(pollen%2C%20brood,to%20ferment%20in%20the%20process..

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  • This scientific name is not yet recognized in our classification database.