Geographic Range
Barrow’s goldeneyes (
Bucephala islandica
) have a discontinuous distribution that consists of three separate populations. Approximately
150,000 to 200,000 birds are distributed west of the North American Rocky Mountains
in aquatic habitats, from Montana to southeastern Alaska. There are smaller separated
populations consisting of approximately 4,500 birds found in northeastern North America,
from the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, extending downward into Maine. Smaller
resident populations consisting of 2,000 can also be found in Greenland and Iceland.
Oddly, the eastern and western populations show little variation and are seemingly
identical on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts although the populations do not share
similar boundaries.
Wintering areas for western populations extend from southeastern Alaska to central
California, with most wintering birds found in the San Francisco Bay and other large
open water areas of the northwestern states. Eastern populations can be localized
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and parts of the northeastern States.
- Biogeographic Regions
- nearctic
- palearctic
- Other Geographic Terms
- holarctic
Habitat
During the breeding season, Barrow’s goldeneyes are primarily associated with invertebrate-rich
freshwater and alkaline lakes that are surrounded by mature boreal forests, where
tree cavities can be found for nesting. Although uncommon, mating Barrow’s Goldeneyes
can be associated with subalpine lakes, beaver ponds, and small sloughs in western
intermountain areas. Eastern populations of Barrow’s goldeneyes prefer the same conditions,
but can be more assorted with small fishless lakes.
Wintering Barrow’s goldeneyes migrate towards coastal areas and are mainly found in
rocky coastal marine and estuarine habitats, including bays, inlets, harbors and large,
interior lakes and rivers. Preferring shallower ice-free waters, strong swimming Barrow’s
goldeneyes forage in areas with strong currents, but seem to prefer slow-flowing water.
- Habitat Regions
- polar
- saltwater or marine
- freshwater
- Terrestrial Biomes
- forest
- Aquatic Biomes
- lakes and ponds
- rivers and streams
- coastal
- Other Habitat Features
- estuarine
Physical Description
Adult Barrow’s goldeneyes are similar in appearance to
common goldeneyes
. They are a chunky-bodied, medium-sized diving duck, with a large, puffy head and
a short neck. Males are slightly larger than females, averaging 48 cm in length, compared
to 43 cm among females, and weigh 1278 grams, compared to 818 grams for females. Breeding
males have dazzling plumage, an iridescent purplish-black, crescent-shaped head, with
a single white patch on each side of the face at the base of the bill and eyes. Their
sides, breast, belly, and secondary feathers are bright white and their back, wings,
and tail are a deep black. These birds also have a series of seven white squares running
along the sides of their body. Females have dual-colored plumage: with a rich-brown
head, greyish backs, wings, and tails, and white sides, breasts, and bellies. Immature
or eclipse males resemble females. Both males and females have a short, triangular
bill. Mature adults of both sexes have bright, deep yellow irises, hence the common
name "goldeneye”. During flight, their high-speed wings produce a whistling sound.
Barrow’s goldeneyes can be confused with
common goldeneyes
. However, adult male Barrow’s goldeneyes have a crescent-shaped white patch on the
sides of their head, which is oval-shaped in common goldeneyes, and fewer white secondary
feathers. Females are more easily confused; but female Barrow’s goldeneyes have shorter,
sloping heads and broader bills, which taper abruptly to a narrower tip. Hatchlings
of both species are also similar in appearance.
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- homoiothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- male larger
- sexes colored or patterned differently
- male more colorful
Reproduction
They are generally monogamous and form pairs while on wintering grounds. However,
male Barrow’s goldeneyes can be considered polygynous. Males, also known as drakes,
can form simultaneous pair bonds with two females. It is suggested that polygyny in
Barrow's goldeneyes is not a common breeding strategy, but is rather an unusual occurrence.
Males conduct an assortment of physical displays and vocalizations during courtship.
These displays are similar to the displays of
common goldeneyes
. Displays include turning their heads and pulling them back at varying speeds, holding
their heads up and swinging them backwards with their bills pointed vertically, and
lifting their head up and down with a straight neck.
It is unknown if pair bonds last over multiple years, although some researchers propose
Barrow’s goldeneyes pair long-term. Forced copulation is common in waterfowl; however,
it has never been documented in Barrow’s goldeneyes. Drake Barrow’s goldeneyes take
several minutes before mounting a prone female; this delay implies a strong bond.
- Mating System
- monogamous
Barrow’s goldeneyes are secondary cavity nesters, they use abandoned nests constructed
by other species, usually excavated by
pileated woodpeckers
and
northern flickers
. Their nests are hollowed out tree cavities, typically
white birch
. They also appear to rely on the availability of natural cavities formed in large,
decaying trees for nesting. In recent decades, nesting females have benefited from
man-made nest boxes. Many female Barrow's goldeneyes typical do not start breeding
until the age of three years. When females become sexual mature, they begin to seek
out and select suitable nest sites, accompanied by males. Once chosen, the nest is
lined with downy feathers from the female’s breasts.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- seasonal breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- oviparous
Female Barrow’s goldeneyes usually lay a clutch of around 6 to 12 blue-green or olive-green
eggs, which are incubated for 29 to 31 days. Females may leave the nest occasionally
during the day to forage. Young Barrow’s goldeneyes are well-developed at hatching,
and are able to leave the nest within the first day. After using their long tails
and sharp claws to climb the inner side of the nest cavity, young Barrow’s goldeneyes
must make the long jump from the nest entrance to the ground, encouraged by the female
calling to them from below. Young Barrow’s goldeneyes have been known to leap from
great heights without injury because of their puffy down feathers, which cushion their
fall.
- Parental Investment
- precocial
-
pre-fertilization
- provisioning
-
protecting
- female
-
pre-hatching/birth
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-weaning/fledging
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
Lifespan/Longevity
Barrow’s goldeneyes are rather long-lived, with a single individual reaching 18 years
of age.
According to the USGS, an individual Barrow’s goldeneye was banded one year after
hatching in Alaska in 1965 and killed later in 1979, reaching nearly 16 years in age.
No extensive studies on lifespan in captivity have been conducted. Several studies
suggest that longevity is linked to food availability, stable environment, and absence
of disease and toxic materials such as lead and mercury.
Behavior
Barrow’s goldeneyes devote their time to preening, swimming, diving, perching, flying,
and foraging, with most of their time allocated in the water. Their gross morphology
is built for diving and swimming, however, this hinders their ability to become airborne
quickly. Instead of springing straight up out of the water into flight, as puddle
ducks do, Barrow’s goldeneyes must run across the water to build up speed before taking
off. Their principal daytime activity is foraging, comprising of most of their time.
They typically forage in small groups, diving synchronously to search for prey. Their
remaining time consists of preening and bathing while on the surface of the water
or on the shoreline. Moderately social outside of the breeding season, Barrow’s goldeneyes
can be observed in flocks of 5 to 10 and rarely in flocks of more than 50. However,
migrating flocks gather with other groups into large flocks at rest sites. It is not
unusual for Barrow’s goldeneyes to forage with different waterfowl species. Flight
is rapid, with strong wing beats.
- Key Behaviors
- flies
- natatorial
- diurnal
- motile
- migratory
- social
Home Range
Populations of Barrow’s goldeneyes migrate between their summer breeding ranges and
wintering grounds. They are often one of the last ducks to leave their summer grounds
and winter as far north as possible in ice-free areas. They can be aggressive and
territorial in the spring. Males defend territory, and females defend the immediate
area around the nest-site. Paired drakes defend territories on their breeding ponds
until mid-incubation. The size of a breeding territory varies depending on the location
but it ranges from 0.18 to 1.45 ha. Many female Barrow's goldeneyes return to the
same breeding locations year after year. In some cases, these birds may also defend
their winter territories.
Communication and Perception
Barrow’s goldeneyes are mainly silent, except in courtship when males gives a short
"ka-KAA," and near nests, where female makes short soft "cuc" notes. In flight, their
wings produce a whistling sound. Visual signals are also used in courtship and aggression.
Food Habits
Barrow’s goldeneyes consume a variety of aquatic organisms. Their diet consists of
mussels
,
snails
,
limpets
,
crustaceans
,
isopods
, fish eggs,
algae
, and vascular plants. Their diet likely varies regionally as well as seasonally.
Blue mussels
are an essential food source of Barrow’s goldeneyes in the coastal waters of British
Columbia. During the spring, fish eggs, such as
salmon
and
herring
eggs, make up a large portion of their diet. Barrow’s goldeneyes typically hunt for
prey in water less than 4 meters deep, although they may hunt in deeper water. They
prefer to forage in open water, although they can be frequently found along rocky
shorelines inhabited by mussels. Prey is swallowed while submerged under the water.
Adults may dive for 10 to 50 seconds, while downy young only dabble in their first
few weeks. Individuals in flocks tend to dive and surface in a highly synchronous
fashion. Synchrony allows for groups to maintain cohesion and a watchful eye during
foraging trips.
- Primary Diet
-
carnivore
- piscivore
- eats non-insect arthropods
- molluscivore
- herbivore
- omnivore
- Animal Foods
- fish
- eggs
- insects
- mollusks
- aquatic crustaceans
- Plant Foods
- roots and tubers
Predation
Barrow’s goldeneyes remain susceptible to an assortment of predators. Most predation
occurs on nesting females and hatchlings. Predators include
American black bears
,
raccoons
,
bald eagles
,
hawks
,
owls
, and
weasels
such as
American martens
and
fishers
. Large predatory fish, like
northern pike
and
muskellunges
may also prey on more vulnerable, immature hatchlings. Non-native
European starlings
also destroy eggs in attempts to seize nest cavities. Young Barrow’s goldeneyes often
escape predators by diving underwater.
Ecosystem Roles
Barrow’s goldeneyes compete for suitable nest sites with species like
common goldeneyes
,
buffleheads
,
squirrels
,
northern flickers
, and invasive species like
European starlings
. Barrow’s goldeneyes also compete directly with fish for prey and tend to breed and
forage on fish-free lakes. Similar to many other duck species, intraspecific nest
parasitism is common. Barrow’s goldeneyes are particularly noted as brood parasites.
Being a brood parasite has several benefits. The parasitic parent does not have to
build its own nest, incubate eggs, or care for chicks. The host female, whose nest
is parasitized, accepts introduced eggs as her own and raises the parasite chicks
alongside her own brood. Like many ducks, Barrow’s goldeneyes are prone to infections
by a variety of parasites. External parasites like
leeches
,
lice
, biting
mosquitoes
and
flies
,
fleas
,
mites
, and
ticks
frequently infest Barrow’s goldeneyes. Barrow’s goldeneyes are also susceptible to
botulism
and
avian cholera
.
- Ecosystem Impact
- disperses seeds
- leeches ( Haemadipsidae )
- lice ( Mallophaga )
- fleas ( Siphonaptera )
- ticks ( Acarina )
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Barrow’s goldeneyes help regulate populations of prey species including fish,
insects
,
mollusks
, and
crustaceans
. This species of duck is also actively targeted by sportsman during fall and winter
hunting seasons.
- Positive Impacts
- food
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
There are no known adverse effects of Barrow’s goldeneyes on humans.
Conservation Status
Barrow’s goldeneyes are protected under the Canada-U.S. Migratory Birds Convention
and are listed as “least concern” on the IUCN Red List. However, the Canadian Committee
on the Status of Endangered Wildlife assessed eastern populations and considers this
species as “Special concern.” The provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador list eastern
populations of Barrow’s goldeneyes as “Vulnerable”.
Populations of Barrow’s goldeneyes seem to be relatively stable. There are several
threats that are effecting Barrow’s goldeneyes' survival and reproductive success.
Commercial forestry is likely a significant threat to Barrow’s goldeneyes but the
most dramatic impact on their survival is a loss of habitat. Direct threats include
destruction of nests during harvest operations and a reduced number of suitable potential
nest sites. Hunting also poses a large threat to Barrow’s goldeneyes. Increased disturbance
from hunters can have detrimental consequences if left unregulated. Additional threats
include acid rain, oil spill contamination, human disturbance, and degradation of
food resources from oil exploration.
Additional Links
Contributors
Michael Kulinski (author), Northern Michigan University, Alec Lindsay (editor), Northern Michigan University, Leila Siciliano Martina (editor), Animal Diversity Web Staff.
- Nearctic
-
living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Palearctic
-
living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- holarctic
-
a distribution that more or less circles the Arctic, so occurring in both the Nearctic and Palearctic biogeographic regions.
Found in northern North America and northern Europe or Asia.
- polar
-
the regions of the earth that surround the north and south poles, from the north pole to 60 degrees north and from the south pole to 60 degrees south.
- saltwater or marine
-
mainly lives in oceans, seas, or other bodies of salt water.
- freshwater
-
mainly lives in water that is not salty.
- forest
-
forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.
- coastal
-
the nearshore aquatic habitats near a coast, or shoreline.
- estuarine
-
an area where a freshwater river meets the ocean and tidal influences result in fluctuations in salinity.
- endothermic
-
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- monogamous
-
Having one mate at a time.
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- seasonal breeding
-
breeding is confined to a particular season
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- oviparous
-
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.
- young precocial
-
young are relatively well-developed when born
- natatorial
-
specialized for swimming
- diurnal
-
- active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- migratory
-
makes seasonal movements between breeding and wintering grounds
- social
-
associates with others of its species; forms social groups.
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- food
-
A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.
- carnivore
-
an animal that mainly eats meat
- piscivore
-
an animal that mainly eats fish
- molluscivore
-
eats mollusks, members of Phylum Mollusca
- herbivore
-
An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.
- granivore
-
an animal that mainly eats seeds
- omnivore
-
an animal that mainly eats all kinds of things, including plants and animals
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
References
Ballweber, L. 2014. Waterfowl parasites. Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine , 13/4: 197–205.
Beauchamp, G. 1992. Diving Behavior in Surf Scoters and Barrow's Goldeneyes. The Auk , Vol. 109, No. 4: 819-827. Accessed January 21, 2014 at http://www.jstor.org/stable/4088156 .
Carney, S. 1992. Species, age and sex identification of ducks using wing plumage . Washington, DC Jamestown, ND: US Department of the Interior, US Fish and Wildlife Service. Accessed January 22, 2014 at http://www4.ncsu.edu/~csdepern/documents/WaterfowlWings.pdf .
Dunn, J., J. Alderfer. 2011. National Geographic field Guide to the birds of North America . Washington, DC: Random House Inc.
Eadie, J., J. Savard, M. Mallory. 2014. "Barrow's Goldeneye ( Bucephala islandica )" (On-line). The Birds of North America Online. Accessed January 22, 2014 at http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/548/articles/introduction .
Evans, M., D. Lank, W. Boyd, C. Fred. 2002. A Comparison of the Characteristics and Fate of Barrow's Goldeneye and Bufflehead Nests in Nest Boxes and Natural Cavities. The Condor , 116/1: 610-619. Accessed March 16, 2014 at http://dx.doi.org/10.1650/0010-5422(2002)104[0610:ACOTCA]2.0.CO;2 .
Gardarsson, A. 1978. Distribution and numbers of the Barrow’s Goldeneye ( Bucephala islandica ) in Iceland. Natturufraedingurinn , 48: 162-191.
Garrot, d. 2003. "Sea Duck Information Series" (On-line). http://www.seaduckjv.org/ . Accessed January 22, 2014 at http://seaduckjv.org/infoseries/bago_sppfactsheet.pdf .
Lavers, J., J. Thompson, C. Paszkowski, . Ankney. 2006. Variation in Size and Composition of Bufflehead ( Bucephala albeola ) and Barrow's Goldeneye ( Bucephala islandica ) Eggs. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology , Vol. 118, No. 2: 173-177. Accessed January 22, 2014 at http://www.jstor.org/stable/20455856 .
Robert, M., R. Benoit, J. Savard. 2002. Relationship among Breeding, Molting, and Wintering Areas of Male Barrow's Goldeneyes ( Bucephala islandica ) in Eastern North America. The Auk , 119: 676-684.
Robert, M., B. Drolet, J. Savard. 2008. Habitat Features Associated with Barrow's Goldeneye Breeding in Eastern Canada. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology , Vol. 120, No. 2: 320-330. Accessed January 21, 2014 at http://www.jstor.org/stable/20456149 .
Robert, M., M. Vaillancourt, P. Drapeau. 2010. Characteristics of nest cavities of Barrow's Goldeneyes in eastern Canada. Journal of Field Ornithology , Vol. 81, No. 3: 287-293. Accessed January 21, 2014 at http://www.jstor.org/stable/3676460 .
Savard, J. 1986. Polygyny in Barrow's Goldeneye. The Condor , Vol. 88, No. 2: pp. 250-252. Accessed January 21, 2014 at http://www.jstor.org/stable/1368925 .
Savard, J. 1985. Evidence of Long-Term Pair Bonds in Barrow's Goldeneye ( Bucephala islandica ). The Auk , Vol. 102, No. 2: 389-391. Accessed January 21, 2014 at http://www.jstor.org/stable/4086785 .
Vermeer, K. 1982. Food and distribution of three Bucephala species in British Columbia waters. Wildfowl , 33/33: 22-30. Accessed March 18, 2014 at http://wildfowl.wwt.org.uk/index.php/wildfowl/article/view/646 .
van de Wetering, D., F. Cooke. 2000. Body weight and feather growth of male Barrow's Goldeneye during wing molt. The Condor , Vol. 102, No. 1: 228-231. Accessed January 21, 2014 at http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1650/0010-5422%282000%29102%5B0228%3ABWAFGO %5D2.0.CO%3B2 .
2014. "BirdLife International" (On-line). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Accessed April 21, 2014 at http://www.birdlife.org .
United States Geological Survey. Longevity Records Of North American Birds. 2013.3. Patuxent Wildlife Research Center: Jo Anna, Lutmerding. 2013. Accessed April 21, 2014 at http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/ .