Animal Diversity Web

Geographic Range

White cockatoos are found in the North Moluccas of the Maluku province of Indonesia. They occur naturally on the islands of Halmahera, Bacan, Ternate, Kasiruta, Tidore, and Mandioli. White cockatoos have been found on the island of Obi and its satellite Bisa, but they are believed to have been introduced to the area as escaped captive populations. ("Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book", 2001; Juniper and Parr, 1998)

• Biogeographic Regions
• australian
  • introduced
  • native

• Other Geographic Terms
• island endemic

Habitat

White cockatoos occupy wooded areas. They are found in forests and open woodland, mangroves, swamps, agricultural areas and are particularly common around the edge of clearings and rivers. They spend most of their time in the tree canopy. It has been suggested that tall secondary vegetation is their preferred habitat. They are found at elevations of 300 to 900 m. (Arndt and Pittman, 2003; "Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book", 2001; Juniper and Parr, 1998)

• Habitat Regions
• tropical
• terrestrial

• Terrestrial Biomes
• forest
• rainforest

• Wetlands
• swamp

• Other Habitat Features
• agricultural
• riparian

• Range elevation

  300 to 900 m

  984.25 to 2952.76 ft

• Average elevation

  500 m

  1640.42 ft

Physical Description

Cacatua alba is a large white bird with blunt-ended feathers. It has yellowish coloration on the underside of its wings and tail. It is often referred to as the "umbrella cockatoo" because of its broad, backward-bending crest. The crest is fan-shaped when erect. The beak and legs are dark grey. Sexual dimorphism occurs in the eye coloration of C. alba. Both sexes have a pale blue eye-ring, but males have a dark brown iris while females have a reddish iris. Females usually have a smaller head and beak than males.

Cacatua alba weighs 500 to 630 g and is 46 cm long, on average. Its wingspan is 25 to 31 cm. (Arndt and Pittman, 2003; Juniper and Parr, 1998)

• Other Physical Features
• endothermic
• bilateral symmetry

• Sexual Dimorphism
• male larger
• sexes colored or patterned differently
• ornamentation

• Range mass

  500 to 630 g

  17.62 to 22.20 oz

• Average length

  46 cm

  18.11 in

• Range wingspan

  25 to 31 cm

  9.84 to 12.20 in

Reproduction

Courtship behavior in C. alba is very impressive. It begins with the male showing off his body by ruffling his feathers, spreading his tail feathers, extending his wings, and erecting his crest. He then bounces about. The female avoids him at first, but eventually permits him to come near her. They then scratch each other around the head and tail. This serves to strengthen the bond between the two birds. After some time, the male mounts the female and they mate through the joining of the cloaca. Adults that have previously mated successfully have a much shorter courtship ritual, and the female often approaches the male.

Mates form a close bond with one another and are monogamous, with pair-bonds lasting throughout their lives. They can slip into a deep depression if removed from their partner. In the absence of a mate, white cockatoos in captivity will bond to a caretaker as if that person were its mate. (Lantermann, et al., 2000)

• Mating System
• monogamous

The breeding season of C. alba is dependent on the weather. They begin breeding when plant growth has reached its peak (usually between December and March). Pairs leave their group and find a nesting spot in a tree. They generally choose nesting holes in only the largest trees, and nest between 5 to 30 meters above ground. They usually lay two eggs, occasionally three. The male and the female share the responsibility of incubating the eggs until they hatch; incubation usually lasts 30 days. Typically, the parents raise only one of the chicks. If the first chick to hatch is healthy, they care for that one. If it is malformed or unhealthy, they raise the second chick. Chicks are born altricial. They learn to fly at three months of age but are still dependent on the parents for another two to three weeks. White cockatoos reach sexual maturity in six years. ("Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book", 2001; Lantermann, et al., 2000)

• Key Reproductive Features
• iteroparous
• seasonal breeding
• gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
• sexual
• fertilization
• oviparous

• Breeding interval

  White Cockatoos breed once yearly.

• Breeding season

  Breeding occurs when vegetation growth is at its peak, usually between December and March.

• Average eggs per season

  2

• Average eggs per season

  2

  AnAge

• Average time to hatching

  30 days

• Average time to hatching

  30 days

  AnAge

• Average fledging age

  3 months

• Range time to independence

  3.5 to 4 months

• Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)

  5 to 6 years

• Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)

  5 to 6 years

The male and the female share the responsibility of incubating the eggs. Typically, the parents raise only one of the chicks. If the first chick to hatch is healthy, they care for that one. If it is malformed or unhealthy, they raise the second chick. Cacatua alba chicks are born altrical and are completely dependent upon their parents. Both parents are involved in caring for young, although females play a larger role. Chicks learn to fly at three months of age but are still dependent on the parents for another two to three weeks. Once a chick is able to care for itself, the group of three rejoins the rest of the flock. (Juniper and Parr, 1998; Lantermann, et al., 2000)

• Parental Investment
• no parental involvement
• altricial
• pre-hatching/birth
  • protecting
    • male
    • female
• pre-weaning/fledging
  • provisioning
    • male
    • female
  • protecting
    • male
    • female
• pre-independence
  • provisioning
    • male
    • female
  • protecting
    • male
    • female

Lifespan/Longevity

Cacatua alba can live over 40 years in captivity and 30 years in the wild. People have made claims of cockatoos living up to 100 years, though these claims have not been documented. (Arndt and Pittman, 2003; "Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book", 2001)

• Range lifespan
  Status: wild

  26.9 (high) years

• Average lifespan
  Status: wild

  30 years

• Average lifespan
  Status: captivity

  40 years

• Average lifespan
  Status: captivity

  26.9 years

  AnAge

Behavior

Cacatua alba generally occurs singly, in pairs and small groups, or in flocks of up to fifteen birds. In the afternoon, they gather in groups of up to fifty birds. Although they are social, with the exception of mating pairs, they generally do not form close bonds with one another. As a result, there is no firmly defined order of dominance in the community. They are diurnal and tend to be sedentary, although some may be nomadic and wander in search of food.

White cockatoos are extremely bright and inquisitive birds. They have the ability to use tools, such as using a branch to scratch their backs. Birds in captivity require nearly constant mental stimulation. They are constantly moving, climbing, and doing gymnastics. In captivity, birds with too little mental stimulation often become neurotic, plucking their feathers to the point of baldness.

Captive white cockatoos are known to be very affectionate with their human companions, acting much more like a dog than a bird in this respect. ("Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book", 2001; Juniper and Parr, 1998; Lantermann, et al., 2000)

• Key Behaviors
• flies
• diurnal
• motile
• nomadic
• social

Home Range

We do not have information on home range for this species at this time.

Communication and Perception

Cacatua alba communicates with its mate through a variety of gestures and noises. They also scratch each other during the mating ritual. They have also been observed using pieces of wood to bang on trees and logs to alert other birds that the territory belongs to them. (Lantermann, et al., 2000)

• Communication Channels
• visual
• tactile
• acoustic

• Perception Channels
• visual
• tactile
• acoustic
• chemical

Food Habits

In the wild, C. alba mainly feeds on fruits of trees. They are often observed feeding on papaya, durian, langsat and rambutan. However, they have been seen eating crickets (order Orthoptera) and skinks (family Scincidae). They also feed on maize growing in fields, sometimes doing considerable damage. ("Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book", 2001)

• Primary Diet
• herbivore
  • frugivore

• Animal Foods
• reptiles
• insects

• Plant Foods
• seeds, grains, and nuts
• fruit

Predation

We do not have information on predation for this species at this time.

Ecosystem Roles

Cacatua alba helps to disperse seeds and their nests are probably used as habitat for other animals in the non-breeding season. ("Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book", 2001)

• Ecosystem Impact
• disperses seeds
• creates habitat

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

White cockatoos are commonly sold as pets throughout the world; they can cost $1,500 each. They are also popular among Indonesian tourists.

• Positive Impacts
• pet trade
• ecotourism

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

Cacatua alba can cause considerable damage to corn crops. ("Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book", 2001)

• Negative Impacts
• crop pest

Conservation Status

There are twenty-six bird species that are entirely restricted to the Northern Maluku Endemic Bird Area. Cacatua alba is one of eight threatened birds in this area. The greatest threat to wild white cockatoos is capture for the pet market. It is estimated that 17% of the world's population was removed annually between 1990 and 1993. The United States is by far the largest consumer of wild caught white cockatoos, with 10,143 imports recorded between 1990 and 1999. Fortunately, so far, the populations have been relatively resistant to such large pressures from the trade market. This is probably due to their considerable capacity to reproduce, their ability to adapt to changes in habitat, and their lack of predators and competitive species.

Cacatua alba is also threatened by deforestation and hunting.

Cacatua alba is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN and was placed on CITES Appendix II in 1981. The Indonesian government began issuing quotas on trapping in 1988 after becoming a part of CITES. However, the quotas were poorly enforced. In 1999, no quota was issued, making any capture illegal. The zero quota will remain in effect until a more reliable system for enforcing quotas is established. ("Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book", 2001)

• IUCN Red List

  Vulnerable
  More information

• IUCN Red List

  Vulnerable
  More information

• CITES

  Appendix II

Contributors

Alaine Camfield (editor), Animal Diversity Web.

Erin Lane (author), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, Phil Myers (editor), Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.

References

BirdLife International. 2001. Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International.

UNEP World Conservation Monitering Centre. 2003. "Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora" (On-line). Accessed April 14, 2004 at http://www.cites.org/eng/resources/species.html.

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. 2002. "IUCN" (On-line). Accessed April 14, 2004 at http://www.redlist.org.

Kaytee. 2004. "Umbrella Cockatoo" (On-line). Kaytee. Accessed April 14, 2004 at http://www.kaytee.com/companion_animals/birds/umbrella_cockatoo/.

Arndt, T., T. Pittman. 2003. "White Cockatoo" (On-line). Lexicon of Parrots.

Juniper, T., M. Parr. 1998. Parrots: A Guide to the Parrots of the World. East Sussex, TN: Pica Press.

Lantermann, W., S. Lantermann, M. Vriends. 2000. Cockatoos: A Complete Pet Owner's Manual. Hong Kong: Barron's.