Geographic Range
Spot-fin porcupinefish are found in the Pacific Ocean from San Diego, California to
Chile, including the Hawaiian and Galapagos Islands, and the western Atlantic Ocean
from Massachusetts to the northern Gulf of Mexico, as well as Bermuda, the Caribbean,
and Brazil. They are also found around the Azorean and Seychelles Islands, as well
as in the western Indian Ocean, off the coast of Kenya, Mozambique, Somalia and South
Africa. Additionally, these fish can be found in the Mediterranean and Red Seas and
off the coast of New Zealand.
- Biogeographic Regions
- nearctic
- ethiopian
- australian
- oceanic islands
- indian ocean
- atlantic ocean
- pacific ocean
- mediterranean sea
- Other Geographic Terms
- cosmopolitan
Habitat
Adults are generally found in holes and crevices in inshore areas including lagoons,
caves, shipwrecks, reefs, and ledges, and are also found in seamount areas. They are
found at depths up to 50 meters, most commonly between 3 and 20 meters. Juveniles
are pelagic until reaching 20 cm in length, becoming benthic thereafter.
- Habitat Regions
- temperate
- tropical
- saltwater or marine
Physical Description
Spot-fin porcupinefish have round, expandable, slender bodies with small fins. These
fish lack pelvic fins, and the rounded dorsal and anal fins are positioned near the
caudal fin. They have 22 to 25 pectoral fin rays, 14 to 17 dorsal fin rays, and 14
to 16 anal fin rays. They are covered in long spines, which lie flat along their bodies
when they are not inflated, including a longitudinal row of spines (14 to 20) between
their snouts and dorsal fins, as well as small spines covering their caudal peduncle
area. Body color varies, but they are generally uniformly dull brown to green with
the body covered in small dark spots and markings, with a pale belly that is surrounded
by a dusky ring. Their fins do not have spots. These fish have large eyes and wide,
flattened mouths. Their teeth are fused together and they have very strong jaws. Spot-fin
porcupinefish can grow up to 91 cm, with an average of 40 cm, and have a maximum recorded
weight of 2.8 kg. There are slight differences in body shape and color between males
and females.
- Other Physical Features
- ectothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- poisonous
- Sexual Dimorphism
- sexes colored or patterned differently
Development
Spot-fin porcupinefish eggs are buoyant, pelagic, spherical, and 1.9-2.1 mm in diameter.
About five days after fertilization, eggs hatch and larvae, which average 2.6 mm in
length, float in the open ocean near the surface. Hatchlings have large amounts of
yolk still attached to them. Within two days after hatching, larvae have formed fully
functional mouths and their eyes have become fully pigmented. Body coloration is mainly
orange and they are more highly pigmented dorsally. Larvae maintain a thin shell until
they have reached about 5 mm in length (at about 10 days old). At this time they metamorphose
into spiny juveniles. Within 3 weeks, fins, fin rays, and teeth have formed. Juvenile
spot-fin porcupinefish become olive to brown in color with dark spots on their ventral
sides, camouflaging them in the mats of seaweed where they hide until moving inshore,
usually when they reach at least 20 cm in length.
- Development - Life Cycle
- metamorphosis
Reproduction
This species is a broadcast spawner; males and females mate promiscuously during spawning
events. Although mating behavior has not been observed for this species, in captivity
or in the wild, it has been observed for captive
Diodon holocanthus
, a closely related species. Breeding begins when water temperatures reach approximately
25°C, likely from May through August. Multiple males approach a female at a time,
bringing her up to the surface of the water where, if she has ripe eggs, she will
release them. All of the males (usually 4-5) contribute sperm.
- Mating System
- polygynandrous (promiscuous)
Spot-fin porcupinefish breed when water temperature reaches approximately 25°C, typically
from May-August. It is unknown how many offspring are produced by these fish at a
time or what their age at sexual maturity is. Eggs usually hatch within 2 days of
fertilization.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- seasonal breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- fertilization
- broadcast (group) spawning
- oviparous
As this species is a broadcast spawner, there is no parental investment. Planktonic
larvae develop independently in the water column.
- Parental Investment
- no parental involvement
Lifespan/Longevity
Porcupine fish are known to survive at least 10 years in captivity. Lifespan in the
wild is unknown.
Behavior
When spot-fin porcupinefish are threatened, they inflate their bodies by swallowing
water. Their integument is very flexible, allowing expansion of the body to up to
three times its original size. When no longer threatened, excess water is expelled
and the fish returns to its normal size. These fish are typically solitary, outside
of breeding, and are nocturnal, hiding during daylight hours.
- Key Behaviors
- natatorial
- nocturnal
- motile
- sedentary
- solitary
Home Range
There is no information to indicate that this species maintains territories, and the home range is currently unknown.
Communication and Perception
As in other bony fishes, Spot-fin porcupinefish use their eyes to see, nares to sense
dissolved chemicals, and a lateral line to detect vibrations and movement via changes
in water pressure.
- Perception Channels
- visual
- tactile
- vibrations
- chemical
Food Habits
Spot-fin porcupinefish are durophagous and carnivorous, having strong jaws and teeth
that are fused together, specializations for eating hard-shelled creatures. Their
beaked mouths can catch and crush sea urchins, crabs, snails, and clams while their
large, rubbery lips protect them from being injured by spines and broken shells. These
fish commonly scavenge and search for prey in sandy areas, crevices, and caves.
- Primary Diet
-
carnivore
- eats non-insect arthropods
- molluscivore
- eats other marine invertebrates
- Animal Foods
- mollusks
- aquatic or marine worms
- aquatic crustaceans
- echinoderms
- other marine invertebrates
Predation
Spot-fin porcupinefish are well-known for their defensive ability to inflate their
bodies by swallowing water, causing their spines to extend outwards and preventing
most predators from swallowing them. They also secrete dermal toxins that are poisonous
to many species. They do have some known predators, however, mainly large-bodied fishes.
Ecosystem Roles
Spot-fin porcupinefish are an intermediate link in the reef food chain, serving both
as nonspecific predators of benthic invertebrates and as prey for higher order predators.
Like other fish, this species is host to numerous endo and ectoparasites.
- Tetrochetus coryphaenae (Family Accacoeliidae, Class Trematoda)
- Heterolebes maculosus (Family Opistholebetidae, Class Trematoda)
- Chonchoderma virgatum (Order Pedunculata, Subphylum Crustacea)
- Hatschekia elliptica (Superorder Podoplea, Subclass Copepoda)
- Hatschekia iridescens (Superorder Podoplea, Subclass Copepoda)
- Naobranchia wilsoni (Superorder Podoplea, Subclass Copepoda)
- Peniculisa wilsoni (Superorder Podoplea, Subclass Copepoda)
- Taeniacanthus balistae (Superorder Podoplea, Subclass Copepoda)
- Tucca impressus (Superorder Podoplea, Subclass Copepoda)
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
This species is sold in the home aquarium trade. While the internal organs of this
species are extremely toxic, it is customary in Japanese culture to eat the flesh
of these fish as a type of sushi, called fugu. Spot-fin porcupinefish bodies are also
made into souvenirs for tourists in tropical areas: after a porcupinefish is killed,
it is inflated. It is then made into a lamp or wall display. Traditionally, the hardened
bodies were also used as war helmets, by the Gilbertese people on the Gilbert Islands.
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Except for occasional cases of fugu poisoning in Japan, there are no known adverse
effects of these fish on humans.
- Negative Impacts
- injures humans
Conservation Status
Spot-fin porcupine fish are not considered endangered or vulnerable to extinction,
according to the World Conservation Union. However, information is lacking about their
natural history in their oceanic environment.
Additional Links
Contributors
Amber Baker (author), San Diego Mesa College, Ashley Koser (author), San Diego Mesa College, Paul Detwiler (editor), San Diego Mesa College, Jeremy Wright (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.
- Nearctic
-
living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Ethiopian
-
living in sub-Saharan Africa (south of 30 degrees north) and Madagascar.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Australian
-
Living in Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, New Guinea and associated islands.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- oceanic islands
-
islands that are not part of continental shelf areas, they are not, and have never been, connected to a continental land mass, most typically these are volcanic islands.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Atlantic Ocean
-
the body of water between Africa, Europe, the southern ocean (above 60 degrees south latitude), and the western hemisphere. It is the second largest ocean in the world after the Pacific Ocean.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Pacific Ocean
-
body of water between the southern ocean (above 60 degrees south latitude), Australia, Asia, and the western hemisphere. This is the world's largest ocean, covering about 28% of the world's surface.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- cosmopolitan
-
having a worldwide distribution. Found on all continents (except maybe Antarctica) and in all biogeographic provinces; or in all the major oceans (Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific.
- temperate
-
that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).
- tropical
-
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.
- saltwater or marine
-
mainly lives in oceans, seas, or other bodies of salt water.
- pelagic
-
An aquatic biome consisting of the open ocean, far from land, does not include sea bottom (benthic zone).
- benthic
-
Referring to an animal that lives on or near the bottom of a body of water. Also an aquatic biome consisting of the ocean bottom below the pelagic and coastal zones. Bottom habitats in the very deepest oceans (below 9000 m) are sometimes referred to as the abyssal zone. see also oceanic vent.
- reef
-
structure produced by the calcium carbonate skeletons of coral polyps (Class Anthozoa). Coral reefs are found in warm, shallow oceans with low nutrient availability. They form the basis for rich communities of other invertebrates, plants, fish, and protists. The polyps live only on the reef surface. Because they depend on symbiotic photosynthetic algae, zooxanthellae, they cannot live where light does not penetrate.
- coastal
-
the nearshore aquatic habitats near a coast, or shoreline.
- ectothermic
-
animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- poisonous
-
an animal which has a substance capable of killing, injuring, or impairing other animals through its chemical action (for example, the skin of poison dart frogs).
- metamorphosis
-
A large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows. In insects, "incomplete metamorphosis" is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form, and "complete metamorphosis" is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms. Butterflies have complete metamorphosis, grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis.
- polygynandrous
-
the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males, each of which also pairs with several different females.
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- seasonal breeding
-
breeding is confined to a particular season
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- fertilization
-
union of egg and spermatozoan
- external fertilization
-
fertilization takes place outside the female's body
- oviparous
-
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.
- natatorial
-
specialized for swimming
- nocturnal
-
active during the night
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- sedentary
-
remains in the same area
- solitary
-
lives alone
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- vibrations
-
movements of a hard surface that are produced by animals as signals to others
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- pet trade
-
the business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets.
- food
-
A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.
- poisonous
-
an animal which has a substance capable of killing, injuring, or impairing other animals through its chemical action (for example, the skin of poison dart frogs).
- carnivore
-
an animal that mainly eats meat
- molluscivore
-
eats mollusks, members of Phylum Mollusca
References
Bailly, N. 2012. "WoRMS Taxon Details: Diodon hystrix Linnaeus, 1758" (On-line). World Register of Marine Species. Accessed October 10, 2012 at http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=127403 .
Balakrishnan, K. 1969. Observations on the occurance of Choncoderma virgatum (Spengler) (Cirripedia) on Diodon hystrix Linnaeus (Pisces). Crustaceana , 16/1: 101-103.
Chandran, A., P. Natarajan. 1994. Heavy infection of Diodon hystrix by the copepod Peniculisa wilsoni (Siphonostomatoida, Pennellidae. Journal of Fish Biology , 45: 167-168.
Debelius, H., H. Hauser, J. Hoover. 2006. "Explorer's Guide - PorcupineFish" (On-line). Shedd Aquarium. Accessed September 25, 2012 at http://sea.sheddaquarium.org .
Eschmeyer, W., E. Herald, H. Hammann. 1983. A Field Guide to Pacific Coast Fishes of North America . Boston, USA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
IUCN, 2012. "The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species" (On-line). Accessed February 18, 2013 at http://www.iucnredlist.org/search .
Leis, J. 1977. Systematics and zoogeography of the Porcupinefishes (Diodon, Diodontaidae, Tetraodontiformes), with comments on egg and larval development. Fishery Bulletin , 76/3: 535-567. Accessed February 18, 2013 at http://fishbull.noaa.gov/76-3/leis.pdf .
Luna, S., A. Ortañez. 2012. "Diodon hystrix: Linnaeus, 1758: Spot-fin porcupinefish" (On-line). Fishbase. Accessed February 18, 2013 at http://www.fishbase.org/summary/Diodon-hystrix.html .
Patton, C. 1999. "Education Biological Profiles: Porcupinefish" (On-line). Florida Museum of Natural History. Accessed September 25, 2012 at http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/Porcupine/Porcupine.htm .
Pauly, D. 2004. Darwin's Fishes: An Encyclopedia of Icthyology, Ecology, and Evolution . London: Cambridge University Press.
Quilichini, Y., J. Foata, J. Justine, R. Bray, B. Marchand. 2010. Ultrastructural study of the spermatozoon of Heterolebes maculosus (Digenea, Opistholebetidae), a parasite of the porcupinefish Diodon hystrix (Pisces, Teleostei). Parasitology International , 59(3): 427-434.
Radhakrishnan, S., N. Nair. 1981. Tetrochetus coryphaenae (Digenea: Accacoeliidae) infection of Diodon hystrix (Pisces: Diodontidae). Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy , B47/1: 47-52. Accessed February 18, 2013 at http://www.dli.gov.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_2/20005a0c_47.pdf .
Sakamoto, T., K. Suzuki. 1978. Spawning behavior and early life history of the porcupine puffer, Diodon holacanthus, in aquaria. Japanese Journal of Ichthyology , 24/4: 261-270.
Great Neck Publishing. 2006. Encyclopedia of Animals . Toledo, Ohio: Great Neck Publishing.