Geographic Range
Woodland jumping mice,
Napaeozapus insignis
, are found throughout northeastern North America, from central Manitoba to northern
Quebec and south into the lower Appalachian Mountains (northern Georgia). In Michigan,
N. insignis
occurs in the Upper Peninsula and in the northern three tiers of counties in the
Lower Peninsula.
Habitat
Boreal habitats contain higher densities of
N. insignis
than non-boreal habitats. Furthermore, woodland jumping mice prefer forested areas
with dense woody undergrowth. Throughout their range, woodland jumping mice are found
in spruce-fir and hemlock-hardwoods. They are also found in forest edge habitats
that are near water or have sufficient cover (shrubs, ferns, grasses, rocks). Woodland
jumping mice occur at sea level in the St. Lawrence region and at elevations of up
to 2013 m in the Appalachian highlands. Due a lack of appropriate habitat, in many
areas populations of woodland jumping mice are restricted to mountain tops, relict
forest patches, and cool, moist coves.
Napaeozapus insignis
is found in a wide variety of habitats in Michigan. These habitats include old growth
dry and wet hardwoods, second growth hardwoods, mixed conifer swamp, tamarack and
black spruce bog, second-growth fir and spruce, and in grassy areas with second-growth
ash cover.
- Habitat Regions
- temperate
- terrestrial
- Other Habitat Features
- riparian
Physical Description
Napaeozapus insignis
is a medium sized rodent that weighs between 17 and 26 g in the spring and early
summer, and as much as 35 g during pregnancy or just before hibernation. Females
are slightly larger than males. Total body length, from nose to end of tail vertebrae,
ranges from 205 to 256 mm. They have a tricolored fur pattern with white underparts,
yellowish orange sides lightly streaked with black guard hairs, and a dark dorsal
stripe from nose to tail. The tops of their feet are white. Most noticeably, they
have a long bicolored tail that is sparsely haired, thin, tapered, scaly, and white-tipped.
Tail length ranges from 115 to 160 mm (approximately 60 % of the total body length).
The number and length of tail vertebrae is increased to make this length possible.
They have four pairs of mammae (1 pectoral, 2 abdominal, 1 inguinal). Adaptations
of
N. insignis
for a saltatorial lifestyle are long hind legs with elongated ankle bones and long
toe bones.
In the field, the only other rodent
N. insignis
could be confused with is
Zapus hudsonius
(meadow jumping mouse). Woodland jumping mice are rarely found in open areas, have
a white-tipped tail, are larger, and are more brightly tricolored than are meadow
jumping mice.
The skull of
N. insignis
is small, high-crowned, and similar to the skull of
Z. hudsonius
.
Napaeozapus insignis
has large, oval infraorbital foramina, small auditory bullae, a short and broad palate,
and narrow zygomatic arches. They have three molariform teeth (
Z. hudsonius
has four) and grooved incisors that are orange or yellow. Their molars are rooted
and semi-hypsodont and they do not have premolars. Woodland jumping mice have 16
total teeth and a dental formula of 1/1, 0/0, 0/0, 3/3.
Northern populations average 12% larger in body size than southern populations. Northern
and eastern populations tend to be more yellowish and southern populations are reddish
orange. Northwestern populations have pale colored sides and dark backs. These distinctions
in appearance and geographic differences helped Whitaker (1972) to identify five subspecies
of woodland jumping mice.
Napaeozapus insignis insignis
is found in New Brunswick, Canada,
N. i. abietorum
in Ontario, and
N. i. saquenayensis
in Quebec.
Napaeozapus insignis roanensis
inhabits the Roan Mountains of North Carolina, and
N. i. frutectanus
is found in eastern Wisconsin and in Michigan.
Woodland jumping mice have a basal metabolic rate of 1.8 ml O2/g hr. Brower and Cade
(1966) found that
N. insignis
has precise thermoregulation when active, deep seasonal hibernation, a high lower
critical temperature, and a poor ability to tolerate high ambient temperatures. These
are likely adaptations to living in the cold.
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- homoiothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- female larger
Reproduction
Males come out of hibernation approximately 2 weeks before females and mating occurs
immediately after both sexes emerge and again in mid to late summer (in the case of
a second litter). Very few data exist about the mating system of
N. insignis
. In captivity, breeding females injure the ears and tails of males when pursued.
However, captive woodland jumping mice are generally passive with each other (even
while breeding).
Female woodland jumping mice are reproductively receptive when they emerge from hibernation
in early- to mid-May. Litters are possible from May through September, peaking in
June and August. The earliest record of pregnancy is May 8, however most females
do not reproduce until June. There are often 2 litters in one season, although this
is more common in the southern part of the range. There are usually fewer young in
second litters than in first litters. Many females have their second litters in August.
The latest recorded pregnancy is September 1. Wrigley (1972) found that 70% of the
individuals in a population of
N. insignis
collected in the fall were young from that year (based on the examination of 2,529
museum specimens collected throughout their range). Woodland jumping mice that do
not reproduce tend to be mice that were born in second litters the previous year.
Both females and males are reproductively mature when they emerge from hibernation
the year after they are born.
Compared to most other rodents,
zapodids
have a longer period of development. This could be due to extra time needed for
growth and coordination of specialized limbs for jumping. Litters contain 1 to 7
young (average is 4.5) and the gestation period is from 23 to 29 days. Young are
blind, naked, unpigmented, and weigh about 1 g at birth. By day 10, young woodland
jumping mice have visible pigment spots beneath the skin all over the body. Their
bodies are covered with fine hair by day 14. Young jumping mice are fully furred
by 24 days and their eyes open by 26 days. By day 34, the young are weaned and they
have the appearance of adults, except they are smaller and their sides are yellowish
brown (adults have orange-brown sides). A molt to the adult pelage occurs between
63 and 80 days. Most adults go through their yearly molt in August.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- seasonal breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- fertilization
- viviparous
Little is known about the parental care of woodland jumping mice because they are
extremely difficult to observe in the wild, and most captive females kill their young
shortly after they are born. Females care for the young, have smaller home ranges
than males, have been observed covering the nest entrance during the day, and have
been found in nests with their young. Because of their long developmental period,
these mice provide a longer period of parental care than do many other small northern
mice. The role of males in parental care is unknown.
- Parental Investment
- altricial
- female parental care
-
pre-fertilization
- provisioning
-
protecting
- female
-
pre-hatching/birth
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-weaning/fledging
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
Lifespan/Longevity
Zapodids have relatively long life-spans. Brown (1970) estimated that
Zapus princeps
lives at least 4 years in the wild and Walter (1964) found that
Sicista betulina
can live 3.3 years in nature. Even though woodland jumping mice have a high turnover
rate in the fall, they live longer in the wild than most other North American small
mammals, up to 4 years of age. Their average lifespan is 3 years. This long lifespan
is at least partly due to the ability of jumping mice to hibernate. Age is estimated
by the attrition of molars and since
N. insignis
only uses its teeth for half of the year, determining age can be difficult.
Behavior
Napaeozapus insignis
is primarily nocturnal, but may be active during the day, especially on cloudy or
rainy days. Woodland jumping mice seek shelter in their own burrows (they are excellent
diggers), in the burrows of other small mammals, or under shrubs. The entrance to
a burrow is covered during the day. Burrows may be as long as 1.5 m. A globular
nest is built in a small tunnel, in brush, or on the ground. Nests are made of grass
and dead leaves, and have a diameter as large as 154 mm.
When speed is needed, a quadrupedal hop is used, but the normal mode of locomotion
is a quadrupedal walk. A single hop normally covers 0.6 to 0.9 m, and can be as long
as 1.8 m and as high as 0.6 m. Jumping mice use trails created by other small mammals
to travel, but not nearly as regularly as do meadow voles (
Microtus pennsylvanicus
). Woodland jumping mice can climb within bushes and on vines, but are not arboreal.
Finally, these mice can swim underwater and on the surface for short distances.
Woodland jumping mice hibernate for at least six months of the year. They hibernate
from September or October to May in a subterranean burrow. Young do not enter hibernation
until late October, about one month after adults begin hibernation. Body fat is quickly
accumulated several weeks before entering hibernation. An adult that weighs 20 g
in the summer may gain up to 10 g to in preparation to hibernate. While hibernating,
woodland jumping mice curl up in a ball in their underground nests and enter a torpor
where their normal body temperature of 37 C drops considerably. Finally, up to 35%
of body weight is lost during hibernation.
In captivity, tail drumming and sporadic jumping are signs of excitability or nervousness.
After approximately one month in captivity, woodland jumping mice calm considerably
and can be easily handled. Woodland jumping mice do not typically display aggressive
behavior towards each other or defensive behavior over food. When given the choice,
they prefer to sleep in the same nest box as other woodland jumping mice.
- Key Behaviors
- terricolous
- saltatorial
- nocturnal
- crepuscular
- motile
- hibernation
- solitary
Home Range
Territory sizes of small rodents are hard to determine because direct observations
in the wild are difficult and it is even harder to observe defensive behavior in nature.
Therefore, little is known about the territory size and territorial behavior of
N. insignis
. Individuals are seldom caught enough times to estimate home range size accurately,
and these mice frequently move to new areas. Nevertheless, it has often been estimated
that males have home ranges between 0.4 and 3.6 hectares and that ranges of females
are between 0.4 and 2.6 hectares. Ranges of females and males overlap. Woodland
jumping mice are highly mobile, a characteristic which helps them find food. Temporary
food sources, such as ripened berries, attract relatively high numbers of woodland
jumping mice. Apparent evidence of colonialism in
N. insignis
may actually be temporary congregations around a food source. The average population
density, in favorable habitat, is 7.5 per ha. However, population density estimates
range from 0.64 to 59 per ha.
Communication and Perception
Not much is known about the communication in woodland jumping mice. In captivity, individuals are very tolerant of each other and show few signs of aggression. Individuals are normally silent; however young mice are constantly squeaking and making suckling sounds shortly after being born. Adults utter a soft clucking sound while sleeping or just before hibernation.
Although not specifically reported for this species, there is undoubtedly tactile
communication between mates, as well as between mother and offspring. It is also
likely that, as in other small rodents, chemical signals pass between individuals
helping to identify individuals, sexes, and the reproductive condition of any particular
mouse.
Food Habits
Woodland jumping mice are omnivorous generalists. Primary food sources are fruits,
seeds, fungi, and insects.
Napaeozapus insignis
is dependent on the fungus
Endogone
for food.
Endogone
was the most abundant food found in the stomachs of specimens from North Carolina,
Tennessee, New York, and New Hampshire. Linzey (1973) found that
Endogone
was in the stomachs of 78% of the mice examined, adding up to 40% of the total food
volume. This large percentage of consumed
Endogone
is not found in any other small mammal. Other plant materials found in the stomach
of
N. insignis
were raspberries, may apples, blueberries, ferns, leaves, and nuts. Connor (1966)
found that insects made up 22% of the stomach contents he examined. The insect species
found were larval
Lepidoptera
, adult
Coleoptera
, and larval
Diptera
. Linzey (1973) found that
Lepidoptera
larvae made up over half of the animal foods consumed by his study animals. They
do not cache food.
- Primary Diet
- omnivore
- Animal Foods
- insects
- terrestrial non-insect arthropods
- terrestrial worms
- Plant Foods
- leaves
- roots and tubers
- seeds, grains, and nuts
- fruit
- bryophytes
- Other Foods
- fungus
Predation
The tricolored pattern of the pelage of
N. insignis
provides camouflage against dead vegetation.
Napaeozapus insignis
escapes from predators with a quick jump followed by a period of remaining motionless.
Their coloration, escape behavior, and relative lack of odor are probably predator
avoidance mechanisms. Woodland jumping mice are mostly safe from predators during
hibernation. Timber rattlesnakes (
Crotalus horridus
), broad-banded copperheads (
Agkistrodon contortrix
), screech owls (
Otus asio
), bobcats (
Lynx rufus
), minks (
Mustela vison
), striped skunks (
Mephitis mephitis
), gray wolves (
Canis lupus
), and house cats (
Felis silvestris
) are all known predators of woodland jumping mice.
- Anti-predator Adaptations
- cryptic
Ecosystem Roles
Woodland jumping mice use fungi as a food source and therefore are responsible for
the dispersal of mycorrhizal fungi (particularly
Endogone
). Mycorrhizal fungi provide trees with essential nutrients through their roots and
break down detritus; both are essential roles in an ecosystem.
Napaeozapus insignis
is closely associated with other small mammals such as
Peromyscus leucopus
(white-footed mice). Also,
N. insignis
populations are complementary to populations of
Clethrionomys gapperi
(southern red-backed voles). When one species exists, usually the other is not in
that area. This may be due to aggression and not competition for resources.
External parasites of
N. insignis
are fleas (
Epitedia sp.
and
Ctenophthalmus sp.
), many species of mites, chiggers, ticks, fleas, and botflies (
Cuterebra sp.
). A tiny mite,
Demacarus newyorkensis
, is the most common external parasite of
N. insignis
, these mites can number from 1 to several 100 per mouse. Red mites (
Trombicula harperi
) are also found on woodland jumping mice. Internal parasites of
N. insignis
are protozoans (
Hexamita sp.
), cestodes or tapeworms (
Hymenolepis bennetti
), and nematodes or roundworms (
Citellinoides zapodis
).
- Ecosystem Impact
- disperses seeds
- none
- none
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Little is known about how woodland jumping mice benefit humans. The disperal of mycorrhizal fungi by these animals benefits many species of trees, some of which may be economically important.
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
There are no known adverse affects of woodland jumping mice on humans.
Conservation Status
Woodland jumping mice have no special status on the IUCN Red List, US Federal List, or CITES.
Other Comments
The original classification of this species was
Zapus insignis
(Miller) in 1891. Differences found in the dental morphology, ear ossicles, and
the bacula later led to the creation of the new genera of
Napaeozapus
and
Euzapus
. Currently,
N. insignis
is in the family
Dipodidae
with jerboas, jumping mice, and birch mice. However, some systematists place woodland
jumping mice in their own family, Zapodidae.
Dipodidae
is divided into seven subfamilies; jumping mice are in the subfamily
Zapodinae
.
Additional Links
Contributors
Nancy Shefferly (editor), Animal Diversity Web.
Erin Harrington (author), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, Phil Myers (editor, instructor), Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.
- Nearctic
-
living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- temperate
-
that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).
- terrestrial
-
Living on the ground.
- forest
-
forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.
- mountains
-
This terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains, either without vegetation or covered by low, tundra-like vegetation.
- swamp
-
a wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water, often dominated by woody vegetation.
- bog
-
a wetland area rich in accumulated plant material and with acidic soils surrounding a body of open water. Bogs have a flora dominated by sedges, heaths, and sphagnum.
- riparian
-
Referring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody (usually, but not always, a river or stream).
- endothermic
-
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- seasonal breeding
-
breeding is confined to a particular season
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- fertilization
-
union of egg and spermatozoan
- viviparous
-
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female.
- altricial
-
young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth/hatching. In birds, naked and helpless after hatching.
- female parental care
-
parental care is carried out by females
- saltatorial
-
specialized for leaping or bounding locomotion; jumps or hops.
- nocturnal
-
active during the night
- crepuscular
-
active at dawn and dusk
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- hibernation
-
the state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced, thus lowering the animal's energy requirements. The act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state, typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals.
- solitary
-
lives alone
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- cryptic
-
having markings, coloration, shapes, or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment; being difficult to see or otherwise detect.
- omnivore
-
an animal that mainly eats all kinds of things, including plants and animals
References
Baker, R. 1983. Michigan Mammals . Detroit, Michigan: Michigan State University Press.
Brower, J., T. Cade. 1966. Ecology and Physiology of Napaeozapus insignis (Miller) and Other Woodland Mice. Ecology , 47/1: 46-63.
Brown, L. 1970. Population dynamics of the western jumping mouse ( Zapus princeps ) during a four-year study. Journal of Mammalogy , 51: 651-658.
Burt, W. 1946. The Mammals of Michigan . Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press.
Connor, P. 1966. The mammals of the Tug Hill Plateau, New York. New York State Museum and Science Service Bulletin , 406: 1-82.
Costello, R., A. Rosenberger. 2003. " Napaeozapus insignis , Woodland Jumping Mouse" (On-line). Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History: North American Mammals. Accessed March 29, 2004 at http://web4.si.edu/mna/image_info.cfm?species_id=207 .
Hanney, P. 1975. Rodents: Their Lives and Habits . New York, New York: Taplinger Publishing Company.
Linzey, D., C. Brecht. 2002. " Napaeozapus insignis (Miller)" (On-line). Mammalia: Mammals of Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Accessed March 29, 2004 at http://www.discoverlife.org/nh/tx/Vertebrata/Mammalia/Dipodidae/Napaeozapus/insignis/ .
Linzey, D., A. Linzey. 1973. Notes on food of small mammals from Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Tennessee-North Carolina. Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society , 89/1: 6-14.
Walker, E. 1964. Mammals of the World . Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins Press.
Whitaker, J., R. Wrigley. 1972. Napaeozapus insignis . Mammalian Species , No. 14: 1-6.
Whitaker, J. 1963. Food, habitat, and parasites of the woodland jumping mouse in central New York. Journal of Mammalogy , 44/2: 316-321.
Wilson, D., D. Reeder. 1993. " Napaeozapus insignis " (On-line). Mammal Species of the World (MSW). Accessed March 28, 2004 at http://www.nmnh.si.edu/msw/ .
Wrigley, R. 1972. Systematics and Biology of the Woodland Jumping Mouse Napaeozapus insignis . Illinois University Biological Monographs , 47: 1-118.