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Pseudemys concinnaEastern River Cooter

By Madeline Malueg

Geographic Range

River cooter turtles, Pseudemys concinna, are native to North America. They are most commonly found in eastern and central parts of the United States. They are found as far north as northern Ohio and extend as far south as northern Florida in the Florida Panhandle. The distribution of these turtles is from eastern Virginia, westward to eastern Texas. Disjunct populations of river cooters can be found in the New River in Virginia and West Virginia, and the Tennessee River in Tennessee and eastern Kentucky.

Through the pet trade, they have been introduced into waterbodies in Europe, including Spain. (Ernst and Lovich, 2009; Van Dijk, 2016)

Habitat

River cooter turtles are primarily found in permanent bodies of freshwater such as rivers and lakes. On rare occasions, these turtles also can be found in ponds, springs, swamps, and even saltwater tributaries. The habitats of these turtles are laden with various types of aquatic plants and marine flora. Though shallow in nature (0-2 meters), these habitats often are moderately inaccessible to humans in order to protect the turtles from anthropogenic disturbances and predation attempts. River cooter turtles also spend part of their lives on land. Activities such as basking and nesting typically take place in terrestrial environments within 30 meters of the waters in which these turtles spend the majority of their time. (Ernst and Lovich, 2009; Rivera, 2008; Van Dijk, 2016)

  • Aquatic Biomes
  • lakes and ponds
  • rivers and streams
  • temporary pools
  • Range depth
    0 to 2 m
    0.00 to 6.56 ft

Physical Description

Upon hatching, river cooter turtles range from 27 and 39 mm in length, and weigh from 5.2 to 14g. When newly hatched, these turtles are a bright green color with light markings. As they mature, their makings tend to darken. At maturity, shell lengths as long as 43.7 cm have been observed, and turtles can with weigh up to approximately 5 kg.

Overall, the shells of adult turtles are relatively flattened, elongated, and oval-shaped with light and dark brown markings. Each shell is distinctively different, but most include green, yellow, brown, and black patterns. Sexual dimorphism can be seen in these turtles, with adult females being larger on average (average carapace length of 287 mm) than adult males (average carapace length 223 mm). Additionally, the shells of male river cooters are flatter than that of females. Males also possess elongated fore claws as compared to females.

Another factor that has influenced the physical characteristics of river cooter turtles is the strength of different water currents. The shells of these turtles form higher or lower drag morphologies relative to the strength of the current in their specific habitat. Those that adapt to form flatter shells in order to prevent dislodging of the shell from the body often have weaker shells than those that have the typical dome-shaped shell. (Aresco and Dobie, 2000; Dreslik, 1997; Ernst and Lovich, 2009; Rivera and Stayton, 2011; Van Dijk, 2016)

  • Sexual Dimorphism
  • female larger
  • sexes shaped differently
  • Range mass
    5 (high) kg
    11.01 (high) lb
  • Range length
    437 (high) mm
    17.20 (high) in
  • Average length
    females: 287, males: 223 mm
    in

Development

In general, the rate of embryonic development of river cooter turtles depends on the temperature at which the eggs are incubated. The eggs are typically incubated for a period of 80 to 150 days, depending on temperature and location of the nesting site. In a laboratory experiment by Dormer et al. (2016), eggs incubated at 30ºC hatched three weeks earlier, showed more advanced embryos, and grew to hatchling size faster than eggs incubated in colder (26ºC) temperatures. Although there are differences in the rate of embryonic development of these turtles depending on incubation temperature, temperature has no impact on final hatchling size. Within the genus Pseudemys, several turtles experience sex determination due to incubation temperature. When temperatures are cool, a higher proportion of the hatchlings are males, and when temperatures are warm, a higher proportion of hatchlings are females. Based on the research of Ewert and Nelson (1991), 100% of river cooter turtles incubated at 22.5ºC were males, 91% of river cooter turtles incubated at 25ºC were males, and 0% of the river cooter turtles incubated at 30ºC were males.

River cooter turtles typically produce 2 to 20 hard-shelled eggs per clutch. Of these eggs, the individual sizes of eggs can vary between 35.8 to 44.3 mm in length, and 22.5 to 27.6 mm in width. Newly hatched turtles can measure 27 to 39 mm, and can weigh from 5.2 to 14 g. When young river cooters hatch, they typically have lighter markings on their shells than adults , but these markings become darker with age.

In general, turtles have indeterminate growth, meaning that they grow throughout their lifetime. This growth slows between 7 and 15 years for males, and 13 to 24 years for females. (Bartlett and Bartlett, 1996; Congdon, et al., 2013; Dormer, et al., 2016; Ewert and Nelson, 1991; Iverson, 2001; Van Dijk, 2016)

Reproduction

When looking at relatives of river cooters from the same subfamily (Deirochelyinae), male and female turtles are generally polygynandrous, meaning that they have several different mating partners within one mating season. In the mating of river cooters, the male turtles pursue the females. In order to show their intentions to mate, they stick their necks out at each other and use their claws to touch each other’s faces and carapaces. In addition, if the turtles are in water, the male turtles occasionally swim above the females and bites at the edge of their shells. If the female is mutually interested in mating, she will swim to the substrate and allow the male to mount her and begin the mating process. As for the paternity of each specific clutch, up to 30% of clutches are likely fathered by multiple males. This is made possible by the fact that female turtles can store sperm for several weeks before fertilizing their eggs. (Ernst and Lovich, 2009; Green and Pauley, 1987; Iverson, 2001; Pierce and Avise, 2001)

For river cooter turtles, reproductive maturity is reached at 6 years of age in females and 13 years of age in males. The duration of their nesting season depends on the location of the nesting site. In warmer locations, such as South Carolina, the nesting period is shorter than it is in cooler areas, where the hatchlings may have to overwinter in the nest to avoid harsh temperatures. Nesting typically occurs from late-April to mid-July. Each year, between 1 and 6 clutches (2.3 on average) are hatched, and each clutch contains about 10 to 20 eggs (14.6 on average). Time between clutches can range from 2 to 12 months. Because female turtles can hold fertilized eggs for several months, the gestation period of turtles in general can vary from 10 weeks to 2 years. As a nesting place for their young, female river cooter turtles dig holes in sand or soil on elevated ground, where they deposit their eggs. The eggs of river cooters are oval shaped with hard pinkish-white shells, and are approximately 4 cm in diameter. The hatchling mass of river cooter turtles varies and can be from 5.2g to 14 g. Depending on the size and age of the mother turtles, the size of their eggs varies. Hatchlings are independent at birth. (Ernst and Lovich, 2009; Green and Pauley, 1987)

  • Breeding interval
    River cooter turtles 2 to 6 times a year, and time between clutches can be from 2-12 months.
  • Breeding season
    Breeding occurs in early spring. Nesting typically occurs from late-April to mid-July.
  • Range number of offspring
    10 to 20
  • Average number of offspring
    14.6
  • Range gestation period
    10 to 104 weeks
  • Average time to independence
    0 minutes
  • Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
    6 years
  • Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
    Sex: female
    2190 days
    AnAge
  • Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
    13 years
  • Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
    Sex: male
    1277 days
    AnAge

Among river cooter turtles, neither parent provides parental care beyond nesting. In this relationship, the single contribution of males is the use of his sperm for fertilization and the indirect impact he has on the genetics of his offspring. In nesting, females use their hind claws to dig a hole about 12 cm deep with an opening of about 7 cm in diameter, in which to deposit their eggs. The eggs are laid, covered in mud or soil, and the female river cooters return to the water. After approximately 90 to 100 days, typically around August and September, the turtle eggs hatch. (Ernst and Lovich, 2009; Green and Pauley, 1987; Pierce and Avise, 2001)

  • Parental Investment
  • no parental involvement
  • pre-fertilization
    • provisioning
    • protecting
      • female
  • pre-hatching/birth
    • provisioning
      • female
    • protecting
      • female

Lifespan/Longevity

In captivity, river cooter turtles are known to live for an average of about 20 years, with the maximum age of captive river cooter turtles being 44 years. In the wild, these turtles often live approximately 40 years. ("AnAge: The animal aging and longevity database", 2014; Ernst and Lovich, 2009)

  • Range lifespan
    Status: captivity
    44 (high) years
  • Average lifespan
    Status: wild
    40 years
  • Average lifespan
    Status: captivity
    20 years
  • Average lifespan
    Status: captivity
    44 years
    AnAge

Behavior

Across most of their range, excluding Florida and other areas with relatively warm winters, river cooter turtles are active from April to October. Outside of this period, turtles that live in colder climates hibernate for several months in the mud on the bottom of the rivers, lakes, and ponds, in which they reside. When hibernating, river cooters can stay underwater for up to two months without needing to make trips to the surface to breathe. In order to do this, they take in oxygen from the water through their cloaca. In their active months, they spend their daytimes basking. Other than basking, these turtles also participate in foraging and nesting during the daytime hours. Much time is spent submerged, resting on the substrate or moving about searching for food. Occasionally, these turtles must come up to breathe, but they are able to stay submerged for several hours between trips to the surface.

When mating, male river cooter turtles use extravagant displays to attract females. Males use their elongated claws to stroke the faces and carapaces of females, and occasionally bite at the backs of their shells while they are swimming. Males and females often mate with several partners during a single mating season. The female will swim to the bottom of the pond and the male will follow, mount her, and inseminate her.

These turtles are very skittish, and tend to remain in the water with the exception of basking and nesting. Typically, these turtles remain in their original waterbody and do not venture out to discover new areas. In the case of a habitat that is no longer suitable, such as a dried up water source, these turtles will make short trips on land directly toward a new permanent waterbody, where they will stay for as long as possible. (Buhlmann and Vaughan, 1991; Dreslik, et al., 2003; Ernst and Lovich, 2009)

Home Range

The home range of river cooter turtles is very dependent on location. The approximate home range of river cooter turtles that live in ponds is 122 square meters. In riverine locations the turtles tend to have a larger home range of approximately 340 square meters. Males tend to move greater distances than females daily. (Dreslik, et al., 2003)

Communication and Perception

At this point, not much is known about the particular senses of river cooter turtles. Similar to other aquatic turtles, these turtles tend to be driven more by sight and hearing than by smell. When tested in a research setting, aquatic turtles in the Pseudemys genus were attracted to bright light and opaque blue color. In particular, these turtles were most effective at discriminating colors between 400 and 600nm. Vieyra (2011) found that there are a reduced number of functional olfactory genes in aquatic turtles. Vievra reported that sight moreso than odor was what attracted young turtles to food.

River cooter turtles typically are very secretive and tend to withdraw from anything that may appear as alarming to them. Specifically, these turtles tend to retreat quickly when confronted with sudden movements or loud noises. Generally, the auditory systems of aquatic turtles are not finely tuned but meet the turtles’ basic hearing needs.

Though secretive, river cooter turtles do interact quite often with each other. They are known to remain in the water except to participate in basking and nesting, and commonly perform these activities in groups. When breeding, male turtles use vision and tactile senses as they swim slightly above female turtles and use their claws to grab the female turtles’ faces and shells. Additionally, male turtles occasionally swim behind females and bite at the edge of the females’ shells to signal their mating interest. (Arnold and Neumeyer, 1987; Bartlett and Bartlett, 1996; Dreslik, 1996; Ernst and Lovich, 2009; Lavender, et al., 2014; Noble and Breslau, 1937; Vieyra, 2011)

Food Habits

River cooter turtles are predominantly herbivorous, feeding primarily on aquatic vegetation. While both adult and juvenile river cooters occasionally consume crayfish (e.g., Cambarus batchi, bluegrass crayfish) and other animal prey, juveniles do so more than adults. Apart from this, the dietary habits of juveniles and mature adults tend to be quite similar. These turtles commonly consume eelgrass (Zostera), green algae (Pediastrum boryanum), pondweeds (Potamogeton), and other aquatic macrophytes. (Buhlmann and Vaughan, 1991; Dreslik, 1996; Dreslik, 1997; Dreslik, 1999; Ernst and Lovich, 2009; Lagueux, et al., 1995; Van Dijk, 2016)

  • Animal Foods
  • aquatic crustaceans

Predation

River cooter turtles are the prey of animals such as raccoons (Procyon lotor), Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), river otters (Lontra canadensis), and American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos). In order to protect themselves from these predators, the turtles use their shells as a protective covering, and often recede into them when predators are near. As well as this, the color of these turtles enables them to blend into their surroundings and therefore avoid predatory attacks. (Stacy, et al., 2014; Van Dijk, 2016)

  • Anti-predator Adaptations
  • cryptic

Ecosystem Roles

Many parasites that live in the liver and kidneys of river cooter turtles are relatively harmless to the overall health of these turtles, but a few can be detrimental. In these severe cases, humans need to be exceptionally careful in determining treatment, because many treatments that are effective in other animals are fatal when used in turtles. In a study by Silvestre et al. (2015), parasites were detected in 27/70 turtles examined. In this study, the nematodes Serpinema microcephalus and Serpinema trispinosum infected the turtles. Total worm counts within the turtles ranged from 5 to 21. (Silvestre, et al., 2015; Ward and Dale, 2008)

Commensal/Parasitic Species
  • nematodes (Serpinema microcephalus)
  • nematodes (Serpinema trispinosum)

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

River cooter turtles are occasionally consumed as food and traded as pets. Their meat, eggs, and skin can be sold as commodities and used to make products for human consumption. (Van Dijk, 2016)

  • Positive Impacts
  • pet trade
  • food
  • body parts are source of valuable material

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

River cooter turtles have no known negative economic impacts on humans.

Conservation Status

In 2001, IUCN Red List classified river cooter turtles as G5, or a species of “Least Concern.” The conservation status of river cooters is not listed on the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna or Flora (CITES) or the United States Endangered Species Act (US ESA). Although they are not a species of high concern globally, these turtles are endangered in Illinois, and a species of special concern in Florida.

The biggest threats to these turtles result from human interference, such as illegal hunting, road-mortality, pollution, and habitat alterations (impoundments, changing shading for nesting spots). Currently, the only protection for these turtles is provided though general game and wildlife regulations, which lack specificity to river cooter turtles. The exception to this is in Florida, where the harvest of the species is restricted, because the species is of special concern. One road in Florida, a source of substantial mortality events, was modified to allow safe passage of these turtles. Although no additional conservation proposals address this particular species, general land and river protection efforts protect areas inhibited by this species. (Ernst and Lovich, 2009; Van Dijk, 2016; Ward and Dale, 2008)

Contributors

Madeline Malueg (author), Radford University, Karen Powers (editor), Radford University, Alex Atwood (editor), Radford University, Marisa Dameron (editor), Radford University, Tanya Dewey (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.

Glossary

Nearctic

living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.

World Map

Palearctic

living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.

World Map

bilateral symmetry

having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.

carnivore

an animal that mainly eats meat

chemical

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

cryptic

having markings, coloration, shapes, or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment; being difficult to see or otherwise detect.

delayed fertilization

a substantial delay (longer than the minimum time required for sperm to travel to the egg) takes place between copulation and fertilization, used to describe female sperm storage.

diurnal
  1. active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
ectothermic

animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature

fertilization

union of egg and spermatozoan

food

A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.

freshwater

mainly lives in water that is not salty.

herbivore

An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.

heterothermic

having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature.

hibernation

the state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced, thus lowering the animal's energy requirements. The act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state, typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals.

indeterminate growth

Animals with indeterminate growth continue to grow throughout their lives.

introduced

referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.

iteroparous

offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).

macroalgae

seaweed. Algae that are large and photosynthetic.

motile

having the capacity to move from one place to another.

natatorial

specialized for swimming

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

oviparous

reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.

pet trade

the business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets.

polygynandrous

the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males, each of which also pairs with several different females.

saltwater or marine

mainly lives in oceans, seas, or other bodies of salt water.

seasonal breeding

breeding is confined to a particular season

sexual

reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female

sperm-storing

mature spermatozoa are stored by females following copulation. Male sperm storage also occurs, as sperm are retained in the male epididymes (in mammals) for a period that can, in some cases, extend over several weeks or more, but here we use the term to refer only to sperm storage by females.

swamp

a wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water, often dominated by woody vegetation.

tactile

uses touch to communicate

terrestrial

Living on the ground.

visual

uses sight to communicate

References

2014. "AnAge: The animal aging and longevity database" (On-line). AnAge entry for Pseudemys concinna. Accessed October 27, 2016 at http://genomics.senescence.info/species/entry.php?species=Pseudemys_concinna.

Aiello, B., R. Blob, M. Butcher. 2013. Correlation of muscle function and bone strain in the hindlimb of the river cooter turtle (Pseudemys concinna). Journal of Morphology, 274/9: 1060-1069.

Aresco, M., J. Dobie. 2000. Variation in shell arching and sexual size dimorphism of river cooters, Pseudemys concinna, from two river systems in Alabama. Journal of Herpetology, 34/2: 313-317.

Arnold, K., C. Neumeyer. 1987. Wavelength discrimination in the turtle Pseudemys scripta elegans. Vision Research, 27/9: 1501–1511.

Bartlett, R., P. Bartlett. 1996. Turtles and Tortoises: A Complete Pet Owners Manual. Hauppauge, New York: Barron's Educational Series.

Belkin, D. 1964. Variations in heart rate during voluntary diving in the turtle Pseudemys concinna. Copeia, 1964/2: 321-330.

Buhlmann, K., M. Vaughan. 1991. Ecology of the turtle Pseudemys concinna in the New River, West Virginia. Journal of Herpetology, 25/1: 72-78.

Congdon, J., J. Whitfield Gibbons, R. Brooks, N. Rollinson, R. Tsaliagos. 2013. Indeterminate growth in long-lived freshwater turtles as a component of individual fitness. Evolutionary Ecology, 2013/27: 445-459.

Dormer, J., J. Old, J. Van Dyke, R. Spencer. 2016. Incubation temperature affects development order of morphological features and staging criteria in turtle embryos. Journal of Zoology, 299/4: 284-294.

Dreslik, M. 1996. Ecology and Community Relationships of the River Cooter, Pseudemys concinna in a Southern Illinois Backwater (Master's Thesis). Charleston, Illinois: Eastern Illinois University.

Dreslik, M. 1999. Dietary notes on the red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta) and river cooter (Pseudemys concinna) from southern Illinois. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science, 92/3: 233-241.

Dreslik, M. 1997. Ecology of the river cooter (Pseudemys concinna) in a southern Illinois floodplain lake. Herpetological Natural History, 5/2: 135-145.

Dreslik, M., A. Kuhns, C. Phillips, B. Jellen. 2003. Summer movements and home range of the cooter turtle, Pseudoemys concinna, in Illinois. Chelonian Conservation and Biology, 4/3: 706-710.

Ernst, C., J. Lovich. 2009. Turtles of the United States and Canada. Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Ewert, M., C. Nelson. 1991. Sex determination in turtles: Diverse patterns and some possible adaptive values. Copeia, 1991/1: 50-69.

Green, B., T. Pauley. 1987. Amphibians and Reptiles in West Virginia. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh Press.

Iverson, J. 2001. Reproduction of the river cooter, Pseudemys concinna, in Arkansas and across its range. The Southwestern Naturalist, 46/3: 364-370.

Lagueux, C., K. Bjorndal, A. Bolten, C. Campbell. 1995. Food habits of Pseudemys concinna suvanniensis in a Florida spring. Journal of Herpetology, 29/1: 122-126.

Lavender, A., S. Bartol, I. Bartol. 2014. Ontogenetic investigation of underwater hearing capabilities in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) using a dual testing approach. Journal of Experimental Biology, 217/14: 2580-2589.

Mathes, K., E. Schuster, E. Engelke, P. Zwart, C. Hackenbroich, D. Ludwig, M. Fehr. 2015. Osteolysis of the hip joint in an eastern river cooter (Pseudemys concinna concinna). Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochenschr, 128/9: 425-432.

Minton, S. 2001. Amphibians & Reptiles of Indiana. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana Academy of Science.

Moll, E., M. Morris. 1991. Status of the river cooter, Pseudemys concinna, in Illinois. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science, 84/1: 77-83.

Noble, G., A. Breslau. 1937. The senses involved in the migration of young fresh-water turtles after hatching. Comparative Psychology, 25/1: 175-193.

Pearse, D., F. Janzen, J. Avise. 2002. Multiple paternity, sperm storage, and reproductive success of female and male painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) in nature. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 51/2: 164-171.

Pierce, D., J. Avise. 2001. Turtle mating systems: Behavior, sperm storage, and genetic paternity. Journal of Heredity, 92/2: 206-211.

Rivera, G. 2008. Ecomorphological variation in shell shape of the freshwater turtle Pseudemys concinna inhabiting different aquatic flow regimes. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 48/6: 769-787.

Rivera, G., T. Stayton. 2011. Finite element modeling of shell shape in the freshwater turtle Pseudemys concinna reveals a trade-off between mechanical strength and hydrodynamic efficiency. Journal of Morphology, 272/10: 1192-1203.

Silvestre, A., D. Guinea, D. Ferrer, N. Pantchev. 2015. Parasitic enteritis associated with the camallanid nematode Serpinema microcephalus in wild invasive turtles (Trachemys, Pseudemys, Graptemys, and Ocadia) in Spain. Journal of Herpetological Medicine and Surgery, 25/1: 48-52.

Stacy, B., D. Wolf, J. Wellehan. 2014. Large-scale predation by river otters (Lontra canadensis) on Florida cooter (Pseudemys floridana) and Florida softshell turtles (Apalone ferox). Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 50/4: 906-910.

Van Dijk, P. 2016. "Pseudemys concinna" (On-line). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T163444A97425355. Accessed September 08, 2016 at http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/163444/0.

Vieyra, M. 2011. Olfactory receptor genes in terrestrial, freshwater, and sea turtles: Evidence for a reduction in the number of functional genes in aquatic species. Chelonian Conservation and Biology, 10/2: 181-187.

Ward, J., J. Dale. 2008. Pseudemys concinna (Le Conte 1830)–River cooter. Pp. 006.1-006.7 in A Rhodin, P Pritchard, P van Dijk, R Saumure, K Buhlmann, J Iverson, eds. Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSN Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group. Melbourne Beach, Florida: Chelonian Research Foundation.

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