Geographic Range
Wood sandpipers (
Tringa glareola
) are one of the most abundant and far-reaching avian species. Their range extends
from Siberia to Scotland. Their migration pattern is directed towards the Aleutian
Islands in Alaska. These birds are one of the best migrants of their genus. In North
America, they have been found in locations such as New York and Bermuda. Even though
wood sandpipers are found in these locations, they are native to the Palearctic, Oriental,
Ethiopian and Australian regions. During winter, they are found in parts of Europe,
Asia and Africa. This species is plentiful in the sub-Saharan African region, as well
as India. In contrast, their population size is minimal in Australia and Tasmania.
In addition, this species may travel to Iceland, Azores, Barbados, Greenland, Faeroes,
Madeira and Hawaii on its migratory path.
- Biogeographic Regions
- palearctic
- oriental
- ethiopian
- australian
- Other Geographic Terms
- cosmopolitan
Habitat
Wood sandpipers may be found in multiple habitats. This species is commonly found
in open areas such as inland freshwater lakes, reservoirs, muddy marshlands, grassy
stream banks, sewage farms, wet paddy fields, small temporary pools, permanent swamps,
flooded grasslands, irrigation channels along creeks of salt marshes and mangrove
swamps. However, these birds typically pursue breeding in between coniferous forests
and tundra areas, with extensive mossy, sedge or grassy marshes.
- Habitat Regions
- temperate
- freshwater
- Terrestrial Biomes
- taiga
- Aquatic Biomes
- lakes and ponds
- rivers and streams
- temporary pools
- brackish water
Physical Description
Wood sandpipers have a spotted upper body, while their breasts and necks are white
with brown stripes. This pattern can be seen in other members of their genus, including
solitary sandpipers (
Tringa solitaria
) and green sandpipers (
Tringa ochropus
). Their white supercilium extends from behind their eyes to the back of their ear-coverts,
or from the base of their beak to the back of their ear-coverts. Their beak is short
and straight, with a deep olive-green base and averages 25 to 32 mm in length. Their
tarsus, which is connected to their thighs, is 32 to 41 mm in length. Wood sandpipers'
legs are long and vary in color from yellow to nearly green. Their legs connect to
slender toes, with almost no webbing. Their hind toes hardly touch the ground when
they stand. Their feet are projected beyond their tails, which are brownish, contrasting
the white patch on their rump and measures 45 to 53 mm. Their features vary at different
stages in their lives. Breeding adults have slim bodies, the upper portion of their
feathers are white and speckled, while their breasts and necks are covered with streaks.
Their legs are yellowish and their bill has a pale base. Non-breeding adults have
brownish upper parts and do not have black feathers. At this stage they are not spotted
like breeding adults, instead their breasts have grayish streaks. Juvenile birds are
similar in appearance to non-breeding adults, except their upper parts are a much
darker, warmer brown. Juveniles have more spotting and streaking on their breasts
and by the end of autumn, the buff color fades into a whitish color.
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- homoiothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- sexes alike
Reproduction
Wood sandpipers are monogamous and territorial birds whose breeding season occurs
between May and Mid-July, although they begin occupying their breeding habitat by
late April. Their breeding areas include boreal forests, wet heathlands, grassy marshes
and scrublands. Males use their plumage to attract mates. When breeding, these birds
disperse into solitary pairs. There are typically 1 to 10 pairs per km2, or up to
50 pairs per km2 in the forest tundra. This species nests in the winter, nesting sites
may include 50 to over 1,000 nests scattered in a particular area.
- Mating System
- monogamous
- cooperative breeder
Wood sandpipers display territorial behavior during breeding season. When choosing
a mate, birds occasionally lock bills and fight. Once a mate is chosen, the pair progresses
towards the nesting period. Their nests are made of dry leaves and grasses with a
depression line built into the ground. At times, these birds use the abandoned tree
nests of other birds. This species is singled-brooded and their eggs measure up to
38 x 26 mm. The incubation period is shared between the sexes; however, females spend
more time incubating the chicks. After hatching, females leave the nest while males
watch over the chicks. This continues until the chicks begin flying, which takes approximately
30 days. Once the chicks are able to fly, they are considered independent and they
can leave the nest when the ground is dry. It takes approximately a year for chicks
to fully mature.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- seasonal breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- oviparous
After breeding in solitary pairs, adult wood sandpipers begin leaving the breeding
areas in late June; they are followed by the juveniles in late August. The precocial
nature of this species allows it to start foraging a couple hours after hatching.
At least one parent, typically the male, stays behind with the chicks during the first
weeks after hatching. The mother usually leaves the nest in order to fatten up and
regain the energy that was used during the production of eggs. In order to watch for
predators and take care of the chicks, males stay at the nesting site instead of migrating.
- Parental Investment
- precocial
- male parental care
- female parental care
-
pre-hatching/birth
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- male
-
provisioning
-
pre-independence
-
provisioning
- male
-
protecting
- male
-
provisioning
- post-independence association with parents
Lifespan/Longevity
Wood sandpipers have an adult mortality rate of 46%, with a first year mortality rate
of 83 to 88%. The oldest banded wood sandpiper on record was 9 years and 2 months
old. Direct mortality has been caused by human interference in their migration pathways.
Behavior
Wood sandpipers are full migratory birds that travel overland across Europe and the
Middle East. However, during the breeding season, wood sandpipers stay near northern
Russia until their young are hatched and on their way to maturation. Non-breeding
birds tend to stay in southern regions throughout the summer. Solitary pairs maintain
well-dispersed nests. After breeding, wood sandpipers migrate to tropical Africa.
They may stop at locations north of the Mediterranean Sea and fly over the Sahara
Desert. During March and early April, this species departs for wintering grounds.
They either travel in small scattered groups of 20 to 50 birds, or large flocks of
up to 1,000 individuals.
Home Range
There is currently little information regarding the exact home range size of wood sandpipers.
Communication and Perception
Wood sandpipers produce loud vocalizations, with low-frequency, repetitive sounds
used during flight, to defend their territory or to find a potential mate. Their flight
call is, 'chiff-if' or 'chiff-if-iff'. They may produce a sharp, repetitive 'chip'
alarm call when they are distressed or perceive danger. Their song is enchanting and
sounds similar to the song produced by redshanks (
Tringa tetanus
). They also perform aerial and ground displays for breeding purposes. These displays
are well suited for their open habitat, as it allows them to be viewed by other birds
over long distances.
- Communication Channels
- acoustic
- Other Communication Modes
- choruses
Food Habits
Wood sandpipers consume dietary items ranging from plants to animals. Among animals,
this species consumes
mollusks
,
earthworms
,
arthropods
,
crustaceans
, fishes,
spiders
,
frogs
and larval
midges
. Wood sandpipers also eat seeds, grains, nuts and algae.
- Primary Diet
-
carnivore
- piscivore
- eats eggs
- insectivore
- eats non-insect arthropods
- molluscivore
- vermivore
-
herbivore
- granivore
- algivore
- Animal Foods
- amphibians
- fish
- insects
- terrestrial non-insect arthropods
- mollusks
- Plant Foods
- seeds, grains, and nuts
- algae
Predation
Their predators mostly prey on their nests. Their known predators include
foxes
,
weasels
,
gulls
,
jaegers
,
falcons
and
hawks
. This may encourage their continuous migratory patterns. When falcons attack, they
attempt to separate a bird from its flock. When wood sandpipers are attacked by a
predator, they form thick, coordinated flocks that synchronously turn at a high velocity,
forming waves of motion. These birds may also feign an injury. In such cases, the
bird pretends to have a broken wing and drag its wing or tail as it slowly flutters
away from the nest. They also may flash brightly contrasting feathers such as wing-bars.
This tactic is thought to make them look like they have a second pair of legs. During
such behavior, they erect their feathers to resemble fur and squeal, while zigzagging
along the ground. Wood sandpipers are also vulnerable to the bacteria
Clostridium botulinum
, which causes avian botulism and
Plasmodium relictum
, which causes avian malaria.
Ecosystem Roles
Wood sandpipers prey on a variety of organisms including
frogs
, fishes,
insects
,
arachnids
,
mollusks
and
earthworms
. Due to their diet, they spread seeds around their ecosystem through their feces.
They may also host blood parasites.
- Ecosystem Impact
- disperses seeds
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Adult and juvenile birds are hunted for food by humans. Wild individuals are also
caught and kept as pets.
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
This species has been known to carry the West Nile Virus, which poses a threat to
human health.
- Negative Impacts
-
injures humans
- carries human disease
Conservation Status
This species is currently not at risk of extinction and has stable levels of population
growth. However, habitat loss is their largest conservation concern, due to the deterioration
of their migration grounds. Human interference, such as aerial transportation, jet
skis and hunting are also potential threats. Other issues that affect their conservation
status include pollution, climate change, biological resource use, mining, invasive
species, disease and agriculture. This species may be exploited in European countries,
such as Finland, due to wetland drainage and destruction of their environments.
Additional Links
Contributors
Amy E. Buettner (author), Bridgewater College, Joemar P. Pazos (author), Bridgewater College, Tamara Johnstone-Yellin (editor), Bridgewater College, Leila Siciliano Martina (editor), Animal Diversity Web Staff.
- Palearctic
-
living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- oriental
-
found in the oriental region of the world. In other words, India and southeast Asia.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Ethiopian
-
living in sub-Saharan Africa (south of 30 degrees north) and Madagascar.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Australian
-
Living in Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, New Guinea and associated islands.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- cosmopolitan
-
having a worldwide distribution. Found on all continents (except maybe Antarctica) and in all biogeographic provinces; or in all the major oceans (Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific.
- temperate
-
that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).
- freshwater
-
mainly lives in water that is not salty.
- taiga
-
Coniferous or boreal forest, located in a band across northern North America, Europe, and Asia. This terrestrial biome also occurs at high elevations. Long, cold winters and short, wet summers. Few species of trees are present; these are primarily conifers that grow in dense stands with little undergrowth. Some deciduous trees also may be present.
- brackish water
-
areas with salty water, usually in coastal marshes and estuaries.
- marsh
-
marshes are wetland areas often dominated by grasses and reeds.
- swamp
-
a wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water, often dominated by woody vegetation.
- endothermic
-
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- monogamous
-
Having one mate at a time.
- cooperative breeder
-
helpers provide assistance in raising young that are not their own
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- seasonal breeding
-
breeding is confined to a particular season
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- oviparous
-
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.
- young precocial
-
young are relatively well-developed when born
- male parental care
-
parental care is carried out by males
- female parental care
-
parental care is carried out by females
- nocturnal
-
active during the night
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- migratory
-
makes seasonal movements between breeding and wintering grounds
- solitary
-
lives alone
- colonial
-
used loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies. More specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits (a continuous, modular society) - as in clonal organisms.
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- choruses
-
to jointly display, usually with sounds, at the same time as two or more other individuals of the same or different species
- pet trade
-
the business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets.
- food
-
A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.
- carnivore
-
an animal that mainly eats meat
- piscivore
-
an animal that mainly eats fish
- insectivore
-
An animal that eats mainly insects or spiders.
- molluscivore
-
eats mollusks, members of Phylum Mollusca
- herbivore
-
An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.
- granivore
-
an animal that mainly eats seeds
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
References
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