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in white-tailed prairie dogs and Utah prairie dogs, there have been no known reports of infanticide occuring in Mexican prairie dogs. The percentage of juveniles that survive at least one year is directly correlated with body mass upon emergence from the burrow. Juveniles with higher body mass have a better change of survival. Although the lifespan of Mexican prairie dogs has not been documented, male black-tailed prairie dogs do not live longer than 5 years, but females may live up to 8 years of age. It

Cynomys parvidens Utah prairie dog

are rarely eaten. Young Utah prairie dogs prefer dead vegetation and cattle feces. Cynomys parvidens eat insects (cicadas) when available. (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1991). Utah prairie dogs can cause serious crop and equipment damage in agricultural areas. (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1991). Cynomys parivdens was previously listed as endangered. The Utah prairie dog had become endangered due to several factors. These include diseases, poisoning, droughts, and habitat alterations for cultivation and

Cynomys leucurus white-tailed prairie dog

every year. White-tailed prairie dogs have been considered a pest for many years by farmers. Though prairie dog towns create optimal grazing lands for domestic livestock, they also destroy crops. A prairie dog colony will reduce available forage. As a result, farmers have been trying to eradicate these rodents for many years. White-tailed prairie dogs can also carry diseases such as sylvatic plague, which can decimate populations of animals, including prairie dogs. White-tailed prairie dogs have so far

Cynomys ludovicianus black-tailed prairie dog

prairie dogs are easily distinguished from Mexican prairie dogs because of non-overlapping geographic ranges. In addition, C. ludovicianus is easily distinguished from members of the subgenus Leucocrossuromys (including Gunnison's prairie dogs, white-tailed prairie dogs, and Utah prairie dogs). In addition to having mainly non-overlapping ranges, members of Leucocrossuromys all hibernate, have white- to gray-tipped tails, have smaller molars, and possess distinctly different territorial and antipredator

Cynomys gunnisoni Gunnison's prairie dog

Pizzimenti and Hoffmann 1973). Compared to the habitats of other prairie dog species, the habitat of C. gunnisoni varies greatly with respect to topography and vegetation (Pizzimenti and Hoffmann 1973). In addition, the burrow systems of C. gunnisoni are more similar to those of ground squirrels than they are to other species of prairie dogs (Pizzimenti and Hoffmann 1973). Entrances are usually located on slopes or small hummocks rather than in depressions, which protects the burrows from flooding

Mustela nigripes black-footed ferret

America's rarest mammal. Black-footed ferrets have been heavily impacted by the extermination of prairie dogs. Ranchers poisoned prairie dogs because of destruction (tunneling and foraging) to rangelands. With the disappearance of prairie dogs, so too went black-footed ferrets. Numbers dropped to an astounding 31 in 1985, and by 1987 they were extinct in the wild. Of the original 100 million acres of black-footed ferret habitat, only 2 million acres remain. Many ferrets were also killed by a canine

Crotalus viridis viridis

shade, or gray. The prairie rattlesnakes' surroundings are lighter blends of colors; to help complement this camouflage, there can also be patterned stripes or blotches on their body.Male and female prairie rattlesnakes share the same physical characteristics. A characteristic to differentiate prairie rattlesnakes from other species of snakes is that prairie rattlesnakes have two or more nasal scales where other species of snakes only have one. Prairie rattlesnakes also have solenoglyphous teeth to transmit

Vulpes macrotis kit fox

Vegetation communities vary with the regional aridland fauna, but some examples of common habitats are saltbrush Atriplex polycarpa and sagebrush Artemisia tridentata. Kit foxes may also occur in agricultural areas and urban environments. They occur at elevations of 400 to 1900 meters. Kit foxes prefer areas with loose soils for constructing dens. They spend most of their time in dens that they dig themselves or take over from prairie dogs (Cynomys), other rodents, and American badgers (Taxidea taxus). Kit

Athene cunicularia burrowing owl

central Arizona and New Mexico and northern Texas. Finally, the breeding range extends north through the prairies of southern Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba Canada. There is a resident population in central and south Florida, and Caribbean Islands. Burrowing owls’ habitats are open areas that are open-canopied, with sparse ground vegetation and few trees. Habitats generally include agricultural lands, deserts, grasslands, prairies, and plains. This can also include urban vacant lots, airports, golf

Sciuridae squirrels

mobbing. Especially common in communal prairie dogs (Cynomys), these squirrels will attack snakes, pouncing, biting and scratching until the snake leaves the area near the burrow or is killed. Squirrels are important sources of prey for a vast array of predators including predators that are threatened or endangered. For rare species such as snow leopards and northern spotted owls, squirrels are an essential part of the diet. Black-footed ferrets eat almost exclusively prairie dogs. Tree and flying squirrels

Crotalus atrox Western Diamond-backed Rattlesnake

in rock crevices or convenient holes. In colder habitats, such as prairie grasslands, populations are forced to use the holes and tunnels of burrowing mammals, especially the prairie dog. Although prairie dogs may block off the Rattlesnake with an earthen plug, these animals tend to abandon burrows that have been taken over by snakes. During hibernation, populations concentrate as several individuals den together. In warmer habitats, where the hibernation season is shorter and hibernacula more makeshift

Sceloporus undulatus Fence Lizard

Eastern fence lizards range from mid New York south to mid Florida and northern part Texas and as far west as Colorado.Subspecies include: southern fence lizards, S. u. undulatus, southern prairie lizards, S. u. consobrinus, White Sands prairie lizards, S. u. cowlesi, northern plateau lizards, S. u. elongatus, red-lipped prairie lizards, S. u. erythrocheilus, northern prairie lizards, S. u. garmani, northern fence lizards, S. u. hyacinthinus, and southern plateau lizards, S. u. tristichus. Eastern fence

Spermophilus perotensis Perote ground squirrel

independent from their mothers at four months of age. Exact weaning time is unknown. Current research makes no mention of known natural lifespans of Perote ground squirrels because observed populations are highly impacted by predators such as prairie falcons (Falco mexicanus), long-tailed weasels (Mustela frenata), and domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris). Perote ground squirrels are also threatened by habitat destruction largely due to agricultural development. For these reasons, a natural lifespan for

Tetraoninae grouse, ptarmigan, and relatives

distributions in territory that is thinly populated by humans; however, some species have become threatened in recent decades. Gunnison sage grouse (Centrocercus minimus) is presently listed as Endangered; lesser prairie chickens (Tympanuchus pallidicinctus) are listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN, with some subspecies such as Attwater's prairie chickens (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) being critically at risk (Storch, 2007b). Grouse bear a holarctic distribution wherein both the palearctic and nearctic regions

Bison bison American bison

such as mountain lions, wolves, and humans. Huge herds of bison once roamed the grasslands of North America. Their grazing and dust-bathing strongly influenced the composition of plant communities and the communities of other animals. Bison can reasonably be called a keystone member of North American prairie communities, along with prairie dogs. Bison were once a major source of meat and hides in the United States. They formed the basis of the economy of a number of groups of Native Americans. Paths made by

Urocitellus

were many alterations to the identification of this and other related groups of ground squirrels recorded as early as the 1880s. However, the only current valid synonym is Spermophilus as this term has been used the longest. In terms of relatedness, Urocitellus is closely related to other ground squirrels in the Americas and Europe such as the golden mantel, as well as related to marmots and prairie dogs. Color varies between species, with a few exhibiting a seasonal coat color despite being hibernators

Spermophilopsis leptodactylus long-clawed ground squirrel

in the wild. There is limited information regarding the behavior of long-clawed ground squirrels, but researchers have observed that they are active during the day. These squirrels have been observed to travel almost 1,000 m in search of food when food sources are scarce. Like most ground squirrel species they are social, but tend to have smaller-sized family groups (1 to 10 members) compared to prairie dog (Cynomys) colonies (1 to 26 members). Small family units congregate in and around burrows that are

Marmota bobak Bobak marmot

deposits. Typical vegetation includes fescue (Festuca ovina), wheatgrass (Agropyrum sibiricum), lyme grass (Elymus junceus) and feather grass (Stipa stenophylla). Isolated populations of M. bobak have historically inhabited the edges of pine forests, however this cover type does not appear to support large colonies.(Yurgenson, 1959; Ognev, 1963) M. bobak is often described as a large analog of the North American prairie dog. Easily spotted while feeding on open grasslands, the species is characterized by a

Canis lupus gray wolf

are one of the most wide ranging land animals. They occupy a wide variety of habitats, from arctic tundra to forest, prairie, and arid landscapes. The largest of approximately 41 wild species of canids, gray wolves vary in size based primarily on geographic locality, with southern populations generally smaller than northern populations. Total body length, from tip of the nose to tip of the tail, is from 1000 to 1300 mm in males, and 870 to 1170 mm in females. Tail length ranges between 350 to 520 mm. Males

Hyla gratiosa Barking Treefrog

eNature.com and Inc, 2003). The skin of these frogs has a very rough, granular appearance (eNature.com and Inc, 2003; VDGIF, 2005). Barking treefrogs have the capacity to change the color of their skin, therefore coloration varies greatly (Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, 2002). Color ranges from a bright lime-green, to various degrees of brown. However, these frogs almost always display darker spots on their backs (eNature.com and Inc, 2003; Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, 2002). A

Numenius americanus long-billed curlew

Pavones. The habitat of breeding long-billed curlews consists primarily of grasslands, with the majority of individuals inhabiting shortgrass prairie, followed by pasture grasslands and cultivated cropland. Curlews show no significant occupational tendencies between dry and irrigated land, but tend to occupy wide-open areas with vegetation 4 to 15 cm tall. In winter they live primarily in intertidal areas and mudflats, as well as foraging in nearby pastures. Long-billed curlews are long-legged shorebirds

Circus cyaneus northern harrier; hen harrier; marsh hawk

range is from southern Canada to the Caribbean and Central America. In the Palearctic, northern harriers breed throughout Eurasia, from Portugal in the west, to Lapland and Siberia in the north, and east through China. They winter in northern African and tropical Asia. Northern harriers are found mainly in open habitats such as fields, savannas, meadows, marshes, upland prairies, and desert steppe. They also occur in agricultural areas and riparian zones. Densest populations are found in large expanses of

Psammomys obesus fat sand rat

winter they often bask in the sun, flattening their body and spreading their limbs out to absorb the heat.Some behaviors of P. obesus are similar to those of American prairie dogs (Cynomys) in that they sit up on their hind legs and tail to observe danger and retreat to their burrows when alarmed.It has been noted that fat sand rats use only one hand to hold their food, they wipe leaves before eating them, and comb their fur with their forefeet. The average home range is 189.6m^2 for males and 75.8m^2 for

Taxidea taxus American badger

by conspecifics to determine reproductive readiness. Badgers are carnivorous. Their dominant prey are pocket gophers (Geomyidae), ground squirrels (Spermophilus), moles (Talpidae), marmots (Marmota), prairie dogs (Cynomys), woodrats (Neotoma), kangaroo rats (Dipodomys), deer mice (Peromyscus), and voles (Microtus). They also prey on ground nesting birds, such as bank swallows (Riparia riparia and burrowing owls Athene cunicularia), lizards, amphibians, carrion, fish, hibernating skunks (Mephitis and

Perdix perdix grey partridge

pests that can be found at ground level. Those born away from cropland also feed predominately on a large supply of insects, which supply the protein vital for growth and development. In the United States, adult gray partridges are susceptible to predation during flight from birds of prey, including the great horned owl (Bubo virginianus), red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus), peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), and snowy owl (Nyctea scandiaca). European birds of prey

Falco sparverius American kestrel

their diet consists of 78% insects, 14% mammals, 6% reptiles and amphibians, and 3% birds. American kestrels are diurnal hunters and exhibit three different hunting methods: hovering, perch-hunting, and in-flight insect catching. They have talon-tipped feet and a sharp beak well-suited for hunting. Because American kestrels are relatively small falcons, they may be preyed on by other raptors including great-horned owls, red-tailed hawks, and prairie falcons. Most predation occurs on eggs, broods, or young

Ctenomys conoveri Conover's tuco-tuco

foraging habits oftentimes stimulate faster plant growth rather than halting it. More research is being conducted on them as interest in the Chacoan ecosystem and Ctenomys species continues to grow. They are also becoming more commonly listed on many pet trade web pages. Similar to the prairie dog controversy in the American west, Conover's tuco-tucos create burrows that damage agricultural and graze areas. Additionally, as herbivores, they have done a lot of agricultural damage through their preference for

Buteo lagopus rough-legged buzzard; rough-legged hawk

they can scan a field or grassy area for small prey. After the prey have been spotted, hawks take flight as quietly as possible (unless already in flight) and circle above a few times to ensure there is no competition with other birds of prey. They dive and spear prey with their large talons. They return to a perch to consume the meal. Typical prey include mice, shrews, black tailed prairie dogs Cynomys ludovicianus, small birds, and other squirrel species (Spermophilus and Tamias). Their are many known

Aquila chrysaetos golden eagle

vocalizations to mark their territory. Instead, they use an undulating flight to defend the boundaries of their territory. The diet of golden eagles is composed primarily of small mammals such as rabbits, hares, ground squirrels, prairie dogs, and marmots. They also eat birds, reptiles and fish in smaller numbers. Golden eagles occasionally capture large prey, including seals (Phocoidea), ungulates, coyotes and badgers. They have also been known to capture large flying birds such as geese or cranes. A pair

Macaca radiata bonnet macaque

Bonnet macaques are found in a variety of habitats, including evergreen high forest and dry deciduous forest of the Western Ghat Mountains. They are highly arboreal and are strong swimmers. They often wander onto dry prairies, although it is not their preferred habitat. Bonnet macaques coexist with several primate species, including Nilgiri langurs (or hooded leaf monkeys Trachypithecus johnii), lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus), and Hanuman langurs (Semnopithecus entellus). Bonnet macaques live as

Larus californicus California gull; Californian gull

Bubo virginianus), golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), prairie falcon (Falco mexicanus), red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), herring gull (Larus argentatus), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), weasel (family Mustelidae), feral dog (Canis lupus familiaris), muskrat (family Muridae), gopher snake (Pituophis melanoleucus), northern pike (Esox lucius), Canada goose (Branta canadensis), raccoon (Procyon lotor), skunk (family Mustelidae), river otter (Lontra canadensis) and other

Sturnella magna eastern meadowlark

Sturnella magna is found in the eastern United States, as well as parts of the southwest U.S. and Central America. The summer breeding range includes parts of southern Canada. Eastern meadowlarks breed in native grasslands, pastures, savannas, alfalfa and hay fields, cropland borders, roadsides, orchards, golf courses, airports, reclaimed strip mines, overgrown fields, and other open areas. In the western range, the breeding range also consists of tall-grass prairies and desert grassland. In the winter they

Microtus pennsylvanicus meadow vole

pups than pine voles Mictrotus pinetorum and prairie voles Microtus ochrogaster. On average, in the wild, these voles have a life span of 2-3 months, though some can live up to 16 months. Meadow voles in captivity can live longer than 2.5 years. The behavior of meadow voles is dependent upon the season. Throughout the more active breeding season (March-November) females are highly aggressive and territorial. Females are aggressive towards both other females and males, when mating and caring for their pups

Terrapene ornata Ornate Box Turtle

with highways. Due to the loyalty of T. ornata to its home range, loss of prairie habitats in the development of houses and croplands also contributes substantially to the decline of this species. Because this species spends the majority of their lives inactive in underground burrows, they are also easily preyed upon. To a lesser extent, fatalities caused by human activity can also be attributed to farming machinery and lawn mowers. Slow maturity to reproductive age and high mortality of juveniles may also

Dipodomys elator Texas kangaroo rat

with bare-ground areas and clay soil; it does not live more than 0.8 km from mesquite ( Prosopis glandulosa) or on sand. The mesquite grassland cover-type has been greatly reduced by agricultural modification. This practice has caused the wholesale removal of the ecosystem and promoted the invasion of exotic species on remaining patches. Mesquite grassland cover has also been limited by the extirpation of bison, black-tailed prairie dogs, and fire; these would have historically rejuvenated old patches on

Gopherus polyphemus (Florida) Gopher Tortoise

tree canopy, and plenty of low growing vegetation. Some common Gopher tortoise habitats include scrub, coastal dunes, sandhill, pine and scrubby flatwoods, prairie, pine-mixed hardwoods, and xeric hammock. Periodic burning is an essential component of Gopher tortoise habitat, as it inhibits the growth of tall, dense vegetation that prevents the growth of low growing plants that make up the tortoises’ diet. Within these habitats, G. polyphemus builds underground burrows. These burrows average 4.5 meters in

Scapanus townsendii Townsend's mole

Cascade Mountains. S. townsendii, like other moles, is almost exclusively fossorial. It prefers deep loamy soils and is rarely found in sandy soils. Scapanus townsendii occupies the subsurface domain of river floodplains, meadows, hayfields, pastures, residential lawns, prairies, and some fir forests. The Olympic Mountain population, S. townsendii olympicus, resides in an alpine habitat of grasses, sedges, alpine wildflowers, and subalpine fir forests.Sympatric with S. townsendii, coast moles (Scapanus

Pooecetes gramineus vesper sparrow

northern Pacific rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis oreganus). The remains of a vesper sparrow were also found in a pellet from a short-eared owl (Asio flammeus). Grant et al. (2005) noted that thirteen-lined ground squirrels (Spermophilus tridecemlineatus) prey on vesper sparrows.Predators of wintering sparrows in Arizona include Cooper’s hawks (Accipiter cooperi), prairie falcons (Falco mexicanus), American kestrels (Falco sparverius), and loggerhead shrikes (Lanius ludovicanus).Based on field observations

Spermophilus richardsonii Richardson's ground squirrel

reproductive success due to the high proportion of forage grasses and legumes (such as Bromus inermis, Agropyron cristatum, Trifolium pratense, T. rapens, and Meliotus alba) and domesticated cereal grains (including wheat, barley and oats) in their diet. They also consume native prairie grasses such as Bouteloua gracilis, Amaranthus sp., and Astragalus spp., but they consume proportionally less of these species in their diet compared to squirrels inhabiting native grasslands. Although Richardson's ground