Animal Diversity Web

Ge­o­graphic Range

Rab­bit bot flies (Cutere­bra buc­cata) are pri­mar­ily Nearc­tic and na­tive to the east­ern United States and Canada. Their range in­cludes much of the east coast from New Hamp­shire and Long Is­land, New York, south­ward through Vir­ginia, Mary­land, Ten­nessee, Geor­gia, and Florida. They are ab­sent from Maine, Rhode Is­land, and Ver­mont. Rab­bit bot flies have been doc­u­mented as far west as North Dakota, Kansas, New Mex­ico, and Ari­zona. They have also been reared from rab­bits in Texas. There have been ad­di­tional ob­ser­va­tions of this species in Wis­con­sin, north­ern Illi­nois, and Iowa.

Rab­bit bot flies have been doc­u­mented in Canada in south­ern On­tario and Nova Sco­tia.

Mu­seum records also doc­u­ment one spec­i­men from the state of Querétaro, Mex­ico, and there are re­ports of rab­bit bot flies as far south as Neotrop­i­cal re­gions in Guatemala and Hon­duras. (GBIF Sec­re­tariat, 2022; Sabrosky, 1986)

• Biogeographic Regions
• nearctic
  • native
• neotropical
  • native

Habi­tat

As lar­vae, rab­bit bot flies bury them­selves within a mam­malian host, the typ­i­cal host being cot­ton­tail rab­bits (Sylvi­la­gus flori­danus). How­ever, they also use atyp­i­cal hosts such as snow­shoe hares (Lepus amer­i­canus) and do­mes­tic rab­bits (Oryc­to­la­gus cu­nicu­lus). They have also been re­ported to use non-na­tive rat species like black rats (Rat­tus rat­tus) and Nor­way rats (Rat­tus norvegi­cus).

Rab­bit bot fly lar­vae typ­i­cally bur­row into the hip or groin re­gion of their hosts, but may also set­tle in the neck and shoul­der re­gions. They de­velop a breath­ing hole at the sur­face of the skin of the host. After feed­ing on their hosts, lar­vae emerge from these breath­ing holes and bur­row them­selves into the ground. Lar­vae then meta­mor­phose into pupae and re­main un­der­ground for sev­eral months be­fore emerg­ing as adult flies. Rab­bit bot flies can be found on the edges of forests and around the dens of their ro­dent hosts, where they lay their eggs. Like most bot fly species in the east­ern United States, rab­bit bot flies are ac­tive at am­bi­ent tem­per­a­tures above 20°C and re­quire sub­stan­tial sun­light.

El­e­va­tion ranges for rab­bit bot flies have not been re­ported. (Cog­ley, 1991; Kauf­man and Wood, 2015; Sabrosky, 1986)

• Habitat Regions
• temperate
• terrestrial

• Terrestrial Biomes
• forest

Phys­i­cal De­scrip­tion

Adult rab­bit bot flies have a long red stripe and a red dot in their eyes, typ­i­cal of bot fly species that use hosts in the order Lago­mor­pha. They have white hair with a pat­tern of black spots on their face and three spots on their cheeks. These three spots are unique to rab­bit bot flies. The most ven­tral spot is also the largest of the three. The tho­raxes of rab­bit bot flies are white or light gray with fine hairs. There is also a clus­ter of black spots along their ab­domens.

Fe­male rab­bit bot flies have shorter hairs on their tho­raxes com­pared to males. Males mea­sure a total length be­tween 16.5 and 17.5 mm, while fe­males are typ­i­cally 18 to 20 mm. Re­ported wingspans are 14.5 to 16.5 mm in males and 16.5 to 18.0 mm in fe­males.

Whereas other bot fly species, such as mouse bot flies (Cutere­bra fontinella), pos­sess mul­ti­ply-pointed spines along their bod­ies, rab­bit bot flies have singly-pointed spines. Rab­bit bot fly lar­vae vary in size by in­star. For ex­am­ple, at the be­gin­ning of the sec­ond in­star, they mea­sure about 5.8 mm long by 1.6 mm wide. By the end of the sec­ond in­star, they mea­sure 10.5 mm by 4.5 mm. At the end of their third in­star, they are 26 to 32 mm long, and 13 to 16 mm wide. Rab­bit bot fly lar­vae re­main in their hosts for ap­prox­i­mately two weeks to com­plete their three in­star stages be­fore leav­ing hosts to pu­pate. A study in Geor­gia re­ported that pu­pa­tion time lasted 103 to 129 days. How­ever, the pupal stage can last longer in north­ern parts of their range. (Col­well, 2001; Kni­pling and Brody, 1940; Sabrosky, 1986)

• Other Physical Features
• ectothermic
• bilateral symmetry

• Sexual Dimorphism
• female larger
• sexes shaped differently

• Range length

  16.5 to 20 mm

  0.65 to 0.79 in

• Range wingspan

  14.5 to 18 mm

  0.57 to 0.71 in

De­vel­op­ment

Rab­bit bot flies lay their eggs out­side of the dens of their hosts. Upon hatch­ing, lar­vae bur­row into the skin of host an­i­mals. Hatch­ing is stag­gered as an evo­lu­tion­ary de­fense to pre­vent an en­tire clus­ter of eggs at­tach­ing to an atyp­i­cal host. Heat and fric­tion are a cat­a­lyst for eggs hatch­ing and will cause them to hatch quicker. Cold tem­per­a­tures in­hibit the hatch­ing and growth of the eggs.

Lar­vae bur­row into their hosts through any ori­fice or open wound. They then mi­grate through the body and set­tle within the neck, shoul­ders, pos­te­rior, or hips of their rab­bit hosts. The rear or gen­i­tals of male rab­bits are ideal for lar­val de­vel­op­ment.

Lar­vae em­bed­ded in a host form a "war­ble" un­der­neath the skin. War­bles have three parts to them, all of which aid in de­vel­op­ment. Pores are holes which allow the bots to breathe under the skin of their hosts. Cap­sules are a thick­ened layer of host skin that pro­tects the lar­vae. The cap­sule layer gets thicker as lar­vae de­velop due to the at­tempts of hosts to heal the open wound. Fi­nally, cav­i­ties are the areas in which lar­vae re­side dur­ing de­vel­op­ment.

Rab­bit bot fly lar­vae com­plete three in­stars in their hosts. At the be­gin­ning of the sec­ond in­star, they mea­sure about 5.8 mm long by 1.6 mm wide. By the end of the sec­ond in­star, they are 10.5 mm long by 4.5 mm wide. At the end of their third in­star, they are 26 to 32 mm long, and 13 to 16 mm wide. A study in Geor­gia re­ported that rab­bit bot fly lar­vae re­mained in their hosts for roughly two weeks to com­plete the three in­stars be­fore leav­ing hosts to pu­pate. How­ever, in colder re­gions this de­vel­op­ment can take up to 30 days.

After 14 to 30 days, rab­bit bot flies exit their hosts through the breath­ing hole in the war­ble and set­tle into soil sub­strate. Upon en­ter­ing the soil, lar­vae will enter di­a­pause in the soil through­out cold pe­ri­ods and ex­hibit de­layed de­vel­op­ment. Di­a­pause ends when warmer months come, at which point lar­vae pu­pate. De­pend­ing on re­gional cli­mate and di­a­pause use, the pu­pa­tion process can take 1 to 12 months. How­ever, stud­ies in Geor­gia mea­sured pu­pa­tion times of 103 to 129 days.

Adult rab­bit bot flies live for ap­prox­i­mately two weeks and do not feed; in­stead they focus solely on re­pro­duc­tion. They mate and lay eggs, be­gin­ning the cycle for the next gen­er­a­tion. (Kni­pling and Brody, 1940; Sabrosky, 1986)

• Development - Life Cycle
• metamorphosis
• diapause

Re­pro­duc­tion

Mat­ing sys­tems of rab­bit bot flies are not well known. Due to their short adult lifes­pan, they are thought to be monog­a­mous.

Once a year, males con­gre­gate in an area to wait for fe­males. It is un­clear what trig­gers the con­gre­ga­tion. Whether it is a pre­de­ter­mined time or if there is some de­cid­ing stim­u­lus is un­known. Fe­males lay eggs out­side of rab­bit dens to im­prove the chances of hatched lar­vae find­ing a host.

The re­pro­duc­tive sys­tems of rab­bit bot flies are thought to mir­ror those of other mam­malian-host bot fly species in the genus Cutere­bra. Typ­i­cally, they are not able to fly in colder tem­per­a­tures, so they will ag­gre­gate to mate when it is sunny and above 20 °C. Males fly to pa­trol and pro­tect a ter­ri­tory from com­peti­tors. Fe­males fly less often, and only fly to find a land­ing site where males can find them. In­ter­course typ­i­cally lasts around 3 min­utes. (Col­well, 2001; Had­wen, 1915; Hunter and Web­ster, 2012; Sabrosky, 1986; Shif­fer, 1983)

• Mating System
• monogamous

Rab­bit bot flies reach sex­ual ma­tu­rity once they reach their adult stage, which can take 2 to 12 months. They breed in sum­mer months at am­bi­ent tem­per­a­tures above 20°C. How­ever, one study found that rab­bit bots in south­ern Geor­gia ex­pe­ri­enced two bouts of re­pro­duc­tion per year. In this case, a larva from June pu­pated for 75 days and then reached adult­hood by Au­gust of the same year. Then, lar­vae from No­vem­ber pu­pated for 103 to 129 days and reached adult­hood the fol­low­ing spring, be­tween March and April. It is likely that tem­per­a­ture lim­its re­pro­duc­tive ca­pa­bil­ity at sites far­ther north in their range.

Fer­til­iza­tion in rab­bit bot flies is in­ter­nal, as fe­males use their ovipos­i­tor to gather sperm from males. Fe­male flies die soon after lay­ing eggs. Al­though fe­males bots of other species lay about 2,000 eggs in the breed­ing sea­son, exact brood num­bers have not been re­ported for rab­bit bot flies.

Rab­bit bot fly eggs do not hatch all at once. In­stead, they are stag­gered to pro­tect all lar­vae from bur­row­ing into the same un­suit­able host, the eggs stag­ger in their hatch­ing and will not hatch at the same time. Lar­vae are im­me­di­ately in­de­pen­dent upon hatch­ing.

In­cu­ba­tion pe­riod and birth mass for rab­bit bot fly lar­vae are not re­ported in the lit­er­a­ture. (Col­well, 2001; Kni­pling and Brody, 1940; Sabrosky, 1986)

• Key Reproductive Features
• semelparous
• seasonal breeding
• year-round breeding
• sexual
• fertilization
  • internal
• oviparous

• Breeding interval

  Once a year but sometimes two generations/year in souther locales

• Breeding season

  Temperatures above 20C, typically just a few weeks long

• Average time to independence

  0 minutes

• Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)

  2 to 12 months

• Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)

  2 to 12 months

After fe­male rab­bit bot flies lay eggs, there is no fur­ther parental in­volve­ment with off­spring as they de­velop. Adults die ap­prox­i­mately two weeks after emerg­ing from the pupal stage. (Sabrosky, 1986)

• Parental Investment
• no parental involvement

Lifes­pan/Longevity

Adult rab­bit bot flies have an av­er­age lifes­pan of ap­prox­i­mately two weeks in the wild. Lar­vae typ­i­cally stay within a host for 14 to 30 days, after which they exit their host and bur­row in the ground to pu­pate. Pupae re­main in the soil for 2 to 10 months de­pend­ing on sea­son and local cli­mate. For ex­am­ple, in Geor­gia, pu­pa­tion was mea­sured from 75 to 129 days; some over­win­tered as pupae while oth­ers emerged in the fall the same year as they hatched.

Rab­bit bot flies are not known to be kept in cap­tiv­ity due to the dif­fi­culty of repli­cat­ing the con­di­tions for pu­pa­tion. The longest known lifes­pan in the wild is 12 months. (Kni­pling and Brody, 1940; Sabrosky, 1986)

• Range lifespan
  Status: wild

  12 (high) months

Be­hav­ior

Rab­bit bot flies have a par­a­sitic lar­val stage and, upon emer­gence from their host, they bur­row in the ground to pu­pate. This makes them fos­so­r­ial dur­ing part of their life cycle. As pupae, rab­bit bot flies enter a state of di­a­pause - sim­i­lar to hi­ber­na­tion - when tem­per­a­tures are cool dur­ing late fall, win­ter months, and early spring months.

Rab­bit bot flies typ­i­cally use cot­ton­tail rab­bits (Sylvi­la­gus flori­danus) as hosts, bur­row­ing into the rear or hip area. Atyp­i­cal hosts in­clude snow­shoe hares (Lepus amer­i­canus), do­mes­tic rab­bits (Oryc­to­la­gus cu­nicu­lus), black rats (Rat­tus rat­tus), and Nor­way rats (Rat­tus norvegi­cus).

Rab­bit bot flies do not so­cial­ize with each other out­side of mat­ing. They are soli­tary as lar­vae and pupae as a re­sult of their par­a­sitism and stag­gered stages of de­vel­op­ment.

Adult rab­bit bot flies are ac­tive dur­ing the day at tem­per­a­tures above 20 °C. Adult males pa­trol ter­ri­to­ries dur­ing the day, but only fly when there is sun­light, or for short pe­ri­ods (ap­prox­i­mately 15 min­utes) when the sun is cov­ered. Fe­males do not fly un­less they are ac­tively seek­ing a mate.

If an air­borne in­sect en­ters the ter­ri­tory of a male rab­bit bot fly, the male will at­tack and at­tempt to bring the in­truder to the ground. If they can not di­rectly at­tack an in­truder, they chase it out of their ter­ri­tory. (Col­well, 2001; Sabrosky, 1986; Shif­fer, 1983; Slan­sky, et al., 2008; Wolf and Batzil, 2001)

• Key Behaviors
• fossorial
• flies
• diurnal
• parasite
• motile
• hibernation
• solitary
• territorial

Home Range

There is lit­tle in­for­ma­tion on the home range of adult rab­bit bot flies. Adult males de­fend a ter­ri­tory dur­ing the few weeks that they are alive and seek­ing mates. (Col­well, 2001)

Com­mu­ni­ca­tion and Per­cep­tion

Lit­tle is known about the com­mu­ni­ca­tion of rab­bit bot flies with con­specifics or re­lated bot fly species.

Bot flies con­gre­gate for two weeks in warmer months to mate. The spe­cific weeks vary de­pend­ing on whether the pu­pa­tion pe­riod ends in sum­mer or fall. It is un­known what draws males to con­gre­gate in a spe­cific area, al­though most lit­er­a­ture sug­gests it in­volves chem­i­cal sig­nal­ing. Males re­lease pheromones that help them at­tract fe­males and fly around so that fe­males see them. Males also guard ter­ri­to­ries and will at­tack or chase in­sect in­trud­ers.

Rab­bit bot flies have com­pound eyes, which al­lows them to dis­tin­guish shades of col­ors and re­spond quickly to ex­ter­nal vi­sual stim­uli. They use tac­tile com­mu­ni­ca­tion to find mates and pro­cre­ate, as well as move through hosts. (Kni­pling and Brody, 1940; Sabrosky, 1986)

• Communication Channels
• visual
• tactile

• Other Communication Modes
• pheromones

• Perception Channels
• visual
• tactile
• chemical

Food Habits

As lar­vae, rab­bit bot flies bury them­selves in a host and feed off of the flesh and bod­ily flu­ids of that an­i­mal. The main host that rab­bit bot flies use are east­ern cot­ton­tails (Sylvi­la­gus flori­danus).

Rab­bit bot flies do not feed as pupae. As adults they lack a mouth, and thus can­not eat. In­stead, they use stored en­ergy from their lar­val stage to sur­vive for roughly two weeks, dur­ing which time they search for mates. (Cramer, 2006; Cramer and Cameron, 2006; Dur­den, 1995; Sabrosky, 1986)

• Primary Diet
• carnivore
  • sanguivore

Pre­da­tion

Lit­tle is known re­gard­ing preda­tors of rab­bit bot flies. Lar­vae and pupae avoid preda­tors by bur­row­ing into hosts or the ground, re­spec­tively. Pre­da­tion is likely rare for adult rab­bit bot flies, as they are only alive and ac­tive for ap­prox­i­mately two weeks. (Col­well, 2001; Sabrosky, 1986)

Ecosys­tem Roles

Rab­bit bot flies are par­a­sitic, which can have a neg­a­tive ef­fect on the ecosys­tems they in­habit. They typ­i­cally feed off of hosts in the order (Lago­mor­pha). Their typ­i­cal hosts, east­ern cot­ton­tails (Sylvi­la­gus flori­danus), have evolved to sur­vive being par­a­sitized. Atyp­i­cal lago­morph hosts in­clude snow­shoe hares (Lepus amer­i­canus) and do­mes­tic rab­bits (Oryc­to­la­gus cu­nicu­lus), with the lat­ter being re­ported to host up to 9 lar­vae in one in­di­vid­ual. One re­port found that rab­bit bot flies can be reared from non-na­tive rats such as black rats (Rat­tus rat­tus) and Nor­way rats (Rat­tus norvegi­cus). (Kni­pling and Brody, 1940; Sabrosky, 1986; Slan­sky, et al., 2008; Wolf and Batzil, 2001)

• Ecosystem Impact
• parasite

Eco­nomic Im­por­tance for Hu­mans: Pos­i­tive

Rab­bit bot flies pro­vide no known eco­nomic ben­e­fit for hu­mans.

Eco­nomic Im­por­tance for Hu­mans: Neg­a­tive

Rab­bit bot flies pose a minor health risk to hu­mans. There is one re­port of lar­vae found in an el­derly man in Con­necti­cut. Mul­ti­ple bots on this in­di­vid­ual reached the sec­ond in­star stage, caus­ing pain, lethargy, and minor skin dam­age. Re­moval of bot fly lar­vae re­quires surgery.

Rab­bit bot flies are also known to par­a­sitize do­mes­tic rab­bits (Oryc­to­la­gus cu­nicu­lus), with as many as 9 lar­vae pre­sent in a sin­gle in­di­vid­ual. (Kni­pling and Brody, 1940; Sabrosky, 1986; Stafford, et al., 2021)

• Negative Impacts
• injures humans
• causes or carries domestic animal disease

Con­ser­va­tion Sta­tus

Rab­bit bot flies have no spe­cial sta­tus on the U.S fed­eral list, CITES, or the State of Michi­gan list. These flies have not been eval­u­ated by the IUCN Red List.

No con­ser­va­tion ef­forts are cur­rently in place for rab­bit bot flies.

A threat to this species is for­est and pas­ture fires. Rab­bit bot flies are very sen­si­tive to tem­per­a­ture and the change in tem­per­a­ture of the soil causes mor­tal­ity of eggs, lar­vae, and pupae. (Col­well, 2001)

• IUCN Red List

  Not Evaluated

• US Federal List

  No special status

• CITES

  No special status

• State of Michigan List

  No special status

Con­trib­u­tors

Dave Brown (au­thor), Rad­ford Uni­ver­sity, Karen Pow­ers (ed­i­tor), Rad­ford Uni­ver­sity, Galen Bur­rell (ed­i­tor), Spe­cial Pro­jects.

Ref­er­ences

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Cog­ley, T. 1991. War­ble de­vel­op­ment by the ro­dent bot Cutere­bra fontinella (Diptera: Cutere­bri­dae) in the deer mouse. Vet­eri­nary Par­a­sitol­ogy, 38/4: 275-288.

Col­well, D. 2001. Par­a­sitic Dis­eases of Wild Mam­mals, Sec­ond Edi­tion. Iowa: Iowa State Uni­ver­sity Press.

Cramer, M. 2006. The Ef­fects of Bot Fly (Cutere­bra fontinella) Par­a­sitism on the Ecol­ogy and Be­hav­ior of the White-footed Mouse (Per­omyscus leu­co­pus). (Mas­ter's The­sis). Cincin­nati, Ohio: Uni­ver­sity of Cincin­nati.

Cramer, M., G. Cameron. 2006. Ef­fects of bot fly (Cutere­bra fontinella) par­a­sitism on a pop­u­la­tion of white-footed mice (Per­omyscus leu­co­pus). Jour­nal of Mam­mal­ogy, 87/6: 1103-1111.

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Kauf­man, P., L. Wood. 2015. Dis­cov­ery and suc­cess­ful de­vel­op­ment of Cutere­bra amer­i­cana (Diptera: Oestri­dae) from an atyp­i­cal host, Rat­tus rat­tus (Ro­den­tia: Muri­dae), in Florida, U.S.A.. Florida En­to­mol­o­gist, 98/1: 349-351.

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Slan­sky, F., P. Kauf­man, M. Bai­ley. 2008. First record of Cutere­bra fontinella (Diptera: Oestri­dae) lar­vae in­fest­ing a Florida rat (Ro­den­tia: Muri­dae). Florida En­to­mol­o­gist, 91/4: 706-708.

Stafford, K., G. Ridge, G. Mo­laei, C. Zarb, P. Bevilac­qua. 2021. Rab­bit bot fly fu­run­cu­lar, tra­cheopul­monary, and human bot fly in­fes­ta­tions in Con­necti­cut (Oestri­dae: Cutere­bri­nae). Jour­nal of Med­ical En­to­mol­ogy, 58/1: 114-120.

Wolf, M., G. Batzil. 2001. In­creased preva­lence of bot flies (Cutere­bra fontinella) on white-footed mice (Per­omyscus leu­co­pus) near for­est edges. Cana­dian Jour­nal of Zo­ol­ogy, 79/1: 106-109.