Animal Diversity Web

Ge­o­graphic Range

Manis gi­gan­tea is lo­cated in the west­ern to cen­tral re­gions of Sub-Sa­ha­ran Africa. Their west­ern range in­cludes Sene­gal along the coast­line all to way to cen­tral Gaban and An­gola and their cen­tral range in­cludes De­mo­c­ra­tic Re­pub­lic of Congo, Uganda and Rwanda. (Dorst and Dan­de­lot, 1972; Me­di­an­nikov, et al., 2012)

• Biogeographic Regions
• ethiopian
  • native

Habi­tat

Giant pan­golins are found in forests and sa­van­nas and seek shel­ter under piles of de­bris and/or bur­rows. The bur­rows can be sev­eral me­ters deep and are made ei­ther by them­selves using their pow­er­ful fore­limbs or they in­habit aban­doned bur­rows made by an­other an­i­mal. They are re­stricted to these re­gions in Sub-Sa­ha­ran African be­cause of the con­stant, hab­it­able en­vi­ron­ment for ants and ter­mites, their only food source that they de­pend on all year round. (Chal­len­der and Hy­wood, 2012; Dorst and Dan­de­lot, 1972)

• Habitat Regions
• tropical
• terrestrial

• Terrestrial Biomes
• savanna or grassland
• forest

Phys­i­cal De­scrip­tion

The largest and heav­i­est of all pan­golins, M. gi­gan­tea weighs 30.0-35.0 kg. It has an elon­gated body with a thick tail cov­ered with ker­a­tinized epi­der­mal cells in the form of over­lap­ping scales. Their av­er­age body length is 152.4 cm and have a quadrupedal gait. They use their strong heavy fore­limbs to dig bur­rows and nests for shel­ter and food. In re­sponse to their food habits their head is long, nar­row, ex­ter­nal pin­nae are ab­sent, thick heavy eye­lids pro­tect the eyes and they have no teeth. Since they are tooth­less, the mus­cles that aid in chew­ing and bit­ing, the mas­seter and tem­po­ralis, are ab­sent. When pro­truded, the max­i­mum length of the tongue is 70 cm and when it is re­tracted it lays ven­tral to the tho­rax and tra­chea and stretches all the way down to the ab­domen. Due to the in­cred­i­ble length of the tongue, when re­tracted, a por­tion of the tongue is folded into the cer­vi­cal re­gion, cre­at­ing a bulge on the out­side of the neck. The tongue is cov­ered with sticky saliva se­creted by a large sub­mandibu­lar gland to trap ants and ter­mites. The hyoid bone func­tions to scrape off the trapped ants and ter­mites and the stom­ach is lined with a hard lam­i­nated ep­ithe­lium to crush in­sect ex­oskele­tons.

On the fore feet there are three well-de­vel­oped claws (the first and fifth dig­its are re­duced) which are curved out­wards to aid in dig­ging. The dor­sal sur­face of the foot is cov­ered with scales while the ven­tral side of the foot has dried wrin­kled skin with a gran­u­lar pad. The hind feet have 5 dig­its with short claws that form a curved line. The scales are grey-brown and are usu­ally 4-5 inches (10-13 cm) long. They ex­tend across en­tire dor­sal sur­face of body but are ab­sent on the ven­tral side of body and the inner sur­face of the limbs. Com­pared to other Manidae species, the tail is pro­por­tion­ally shorter than the body. The tail is also thick at the base, pointed at the tip, and cov­ered en­tirely in scales. The lat­eral sides of body con­tain 15-19 scales, with the largest scales found on the mid­dle of the back, shoul­ders and thighs, and the smaller scales oc­cur­ring on the legs and tail to allow eas­ier move­ment. The re­main­ing por­tion of body that is not cov­ered with scales is pink­ish-grey with fine strands of hair. The scales ex­hibit anti-ad­he­sion and anti-wear prop­er­ties against soil and rock, which al­lows them to eas­ily dig into the ground.

Manis gi­gan­tea is ho­moeother­mic and able to main­tain an in­ter­nal body tem­per­a­ture range of 26.5-34.5 de­grees Cel­sius in am­bi­ent tem­per­a­tures of 17-36 de­grees Cel­sius. Manis gi­gan­tea, like all pan­golins, have lit­tle body hair and a slow me­tab­o­lism, mak­ing them sus­cep­ti­ble to tem­per­a­ture changes, an­other rea­son why they are found in areas of sta­ble tem­per­a­tures. There are no ob­vi­ous signs of sex­ual di­mor­phism. Sex dif­fer­ences in body length or mass could be pre­sent but there is cur­rently no data avail­able. (Botha and Gaudin, 2007; Chal­len­der and Hy­wood, 2012; Doran and All­brook, 1973; Dorst and Dan­de­lot, 1972; Heath and Coul­son, 1997; Jones, 1973; King­don, et al., 2013; Nowak, 1991; Pocock, 1924; Tong, et al., 1995)

• Other Physical Features
• endothermic
• homoiothermic
• bilateral symmetry

• Range mass

  30.0 to 35.0 kg

  66.08 to 77.09 lb

• Average length

  152.4 cm

  60.00 in

Re­pro­duc­tion

Giant pan­golins are soli­tary ex­cept dur­ing the mat­ing sea­son. Their timid be­hav­iour has made them hard to study in gen­eral but es­pe­cially so in re­gards to re­pro­duc­tive be­hav­ior. Lit­tle is known about re­pro­duc­tion in M. gi­gan­tea but there has been some re­search on a sim­i­lar and closely re­lated African Manidae species, Manis tem­mincki, the ground pan­golin, which is likely to have many sim­i­lar­i­ties to giant pan­golins.

Ground pan­golins (Manis tem­mincki) are ter­res­trial ground-dwelling pan­golin species found in sub-Sa­ha­ran Africa, pri­mar­ily in the sa­van­nas. Their range ex­tends through south­ern and east­ern Africa and they do not occur sym­patri­cally with giant pan­golins. Ground pan­golins are smaller than giant pan­golins and partly di­ur­nal. The fol­low­ing re­pro­duc­tive in­for­ma­tion is data for ground pan­golins. Ground pan­golins are typ­i­cally soli­tary until the mat­ing sea­son, which oc­curs from May to July dur­ing the dry sea­son. Male-male com­pe­ti­tion takes place dur­ing the breed­ing sea­son, and the fe­male mates with the win­ner. Males will mate with many fe­males but the num­ber of mates per fe­male is un­known. Males are more motile than fe­males, who re­main in their own home ranges dur­ing the breed­ing sea­son. (Dorst and Dan­de­lot, 1972; Heath and Coul­son, 1997; Nowak, 1991; Pietersen, et al., 2014)

• Mating System
• polygynous

Noth­ing is known about re­pro­duc­tion in giant pan­golins. How­ever, in closely re­lated ground pan­golins (Manis tem­mincki) there is just one off­spring per ges­ta­tion pe­riod (two off­spring is rare). A ges­ta­tion pe­riod of 139 days was ob­served at the Bloem­fontein Zoo in South Africa. Two mam­mary glands are pre­sent on the ven­tral side of the body be­tween the two fore­limbs. Only two ground pan­golin off­spring have been ob­served at the Bloem­fontein Zoo. The first one, where the time of birth was un­known, weighed 425 g and was 17.78 cm long. The sec­ond baby weighed 340 g and was 15.24 cm long at the time of birth. The young will cling onto the back of the mother after four weeks and will stay at­tached to the moth­ers back for up to 6 months. It is be­lieved that sex­ual ma­tu­rity is reach at one-two years in ground pan­golins

Re­pro­duc­tion has only been ob­served in unique cases in cap­tiv­ity. Un­for­tu­nately, all young pan­golins at the Bloem­fontein Zoo died at a young age due to health com­pli­ca­tions. As pan­golins of all ages do not sur­vive long in cap­tiv­ity noth­ing is known about their age at in­de­pen­dence, sex­ual ma­tu­rity, and time of wean­ing. The adults did not sur­vive long enough to de­ter­mine pat­terns and fea­tures in their re­pro­duc­tion. (Dorst and Dan­de­lot, 1972; Ee, 1966; Hua, et al., 2015)

• Key Reproductive Features
• iteroparous
• seasonal breeding
• gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
• sexual
• fertilization
• viviparous

• Breeding interval

  Breeding interval is unknown.

• Breeding season

  Breeding season may occur from May to July.

• Average weaning age

  4 weeks

Moth­ers will carry their young on their back while they are grow­ing or keep them wrapped in­side the base of their tail. Very lit­tle has been ob­served in the wild but in one case of a ground pan­golin (Manis tem­mincki) in cap­tiv­ity (Bloem­fontein Zoo), a mother was very pro­tec­tive and ag­gres­sive when ap­proached by zoo em­ploy­ees. The mother used clawed fore­limbs to at­tack whomever came near and curled into a ball with her young in the cen­ter. As men­tioned be­fore, no off­spring or adult has sur­vived in cap­tiv­ity long enough to ob­serve parental in­vest­ment past a lim­ited num­ber of weeks or months. (Dorst and Dan­de­lot, 1972; Ee, 1966)

• Parental Investment
• precocial
• female parental care
• pre-hatching/birth
  • provisioning
    • female
  • protecting
    • female
• pre-weaning/fledging
  • provisioning
    • female
  • protecting
    • female

Lifes­pan/Longevity

The longest a giant pan­golin has lived in cap­tiv­ity is four years, roughly the same lifes­pan of other pan­golin species in cap­tiv­ity. The longest record of a pan­golin lifes­pan (species un­known) in cap­tiv­ity is 12-13 years but this record is un­usual. Health com­pli­ca­tions are the lead­ing causes of fa­tal­ity. Too much in­ter­ac­tion and dis­tur­bance by hu­mans, es­pe­cially dur­ing the day, has been shown to in­crease stress lev­els sig­nif­i­cantly in cap­tive pan­golins. These high stress lev­els can com­pro­mise their im­mune sys­tems and make them more sus­cep­ti­ble to dis­ease and in­fec­tions. Causes of death range from gas­troin­testi­nal dis­eases, pneu­mo­nia, par­a­sites, and skin disease.​Their di­ges­tive sys­tems are highly spe­cial­ized for a high fat, high pro­tein and high calo­rie diet which can be hard to mimic with ar­ti­fi­cial food.

The lifes­pan and com­mon cause of death in the wild, ex­clud­ing human hunt­ing, of giant pan­golins is un­known. Putting into con­sid­er­a­tion their ob­served low re­pro­duc­tive rate of just one off­spring per ges­ta­tion it is pos­si­ble that their nat­ural lifes­pan is long but fur­ther re­search is re­quired. (Chal­len­der and Hy­wood, 2012; Hua, et al., 2015)

• Range lifespan
  Status: captivity

  4 (high) years

• Typical lifespan
  Status: captivity

  1 to 1460 days

Be­hav­ior

In the wild giant pan­golins are timid, noc­tur­nal, soli­tary species spend­ing their days con­cealed and asleep in their bur­rows. Even though they are found in and around forests, giant pan­golins never climb trees. Giant pan­golins are noc­tur­nal, search­ing for food at night and occur in low den­si­ties. When feed­ing they closes their eyes, nos­tril holes and ears to pro­tect them­selves from de­fen­sive at­tacks by ants or ter­mites and they can shake ants and ter­mites off of their scales. Giant pan­golins are sen­si­tive to tem­per­a­ture changes and have slow me­tab­o­lisms plus very lit­tle body hair. Ther­moreg­u­la­tion is usu­ally not a prob­lem be­cause the am­bi­ent tem­per­a­ture in their nat­ural en­vi­ron­ments stays rel­a­tively con­stant but if tem­per­a­tures are too low in cap­tiv­ity, they are in­ca­pable of warm­ing them­selves. (Dorst and Dan­de­lot, 1972; Swart, et al., 1999)

• Key Behaviors
• terricolous
• fossorial
• nocturnal
• motile
• sedentary
• solitary

Home Range

In ground pan­golins (Manis tem­mincki), males have larger home ranges than fe­males and the home ranges among same sexes are ad­ja­cent to each other with lit­tle over­lap. The over­lap be­tween male and fe­male home ranges is high and dur­ing the mat­ing sea­son males will move into fe­male home ranges. Ground pan­golins (Manis tem­mincki) also use many dif­fer­ent bur­rows found within their home range. Young pan­golins will set up their ini­tial home range within their mother's range and fe­males will re­main in their natal home ranges for longer pe­ri­ods of time than males. In ground pan­golins (Manis tem­mincki) in South Africa, the av­er­age home ranges for adult male and fe­male adult ground pan­golin are 10.0 ± 8.9 km² and 6.5 ± 5.9 km² re­spec­tively and for young male and fe­male ground pan­golins are 7.1 ± 1.1 km² and 6.1 ± 4.0 km² re­spec­tively. The avail­abil­ity of space may be dif­fer­ent in more west­ern and cen­tral in Africa where Manis gi­gan­tea is found. (Heath and Coul­son, 1997; Pietersen, et al., 2014)

Com­mu­ni­ca­tion and Per­cep­tion

Giant pan­golins re­peat­edly pro­trude and re­tract their tongues to get a sense of the en­vi­ron­ment. The tip of the tongue is very sen­si­tive to touch and is used as a form of per­cep­tion. There are no data in­di­cat­ing if and how they com­mu­ni­cate dur­ing the breed­ing sea­son. (Doran and All­brook, 1973)

• Communication Channels
• tactile
• chemical

• Perception Channels
• visual
• tactile
• acoustic
• chemical

Food Habits

Giant pan­golins are myrme­cophagous mam­mals, mean­ing a diet spe­cial­ized in ants and ter­mites. All pan­golin species re­quire a diet high in fat and pro­tein. The speci­ficity of their diet is one rea­son why it is so chal­leng­ing to keep them alive in cap­tiv­ity. They for­age at night and are able to dig deep into the soil and de­stroy the un­der­ground nests of ants and ter­mites to eat di­rectly from the nest. They some­times con­sume soil and rocks when for­ag­ing but suf­fer no ad­verse ef­fects. (Botha and Gaudin, 2007; Hua, et al., 2015; Swart, et al., 1999)

• Primary Diet
• carnivore
  • insectivore

• Animal Foods
• insects

Pre­da­tion

The scales cov­er­ing the ma­jor­ity of their body serves as a pro­tec­tive layer from preda­tors. In the event of a threat they will curl up into a tight ball with just the scales ex­posed to the out­side. Once rolled into a ball they are vir­tu­ally im­pos­si­ble to un­curl and can cause deep cuts from their scales by con­tract­ing their mus­cles. An­other form of de­fense is the ejec­tion a foul-smelling liq­uid from the anal re­gion to repel preda­tors. Giant pan­golins re­sort to these de­fense mech­a­nisms if they are un­able to make it to their bur­row in time. Giant pan­golins are hunted by hu­mans but other preda­tor’s in the wild are un­known. (Chal­len­der and Hy­wood, 2012; Nowak, 1991; Soewu and Ay­o­dele, 2009)

• Known Predators

  • Humans (Homo sapiens)

Ecosys­tem Roles

As men­tioned pre­vi­ously, giant pan­golins spe­cial­ize in ants and ter­mites, eat­ing a sig­nif­i­cant amount of these in­ver­te­brates every year. In doing so, they play an im­por­tant role in reg­u­lat­ing in­sect pop­u­la­tions. Giant pan­golins also act as an im­por­tant host for the par­a­sitic tick, Am­bly­omma com­pres­sum. This tick ex­hibits a high se­lec­tiv­ity to­wards African pan­golins, es­pe­cially giant pan­golins. Rick­ettsia africae is a type of bac­te­ria in spot­ted fever group rick­ettsiae found com­monly in A. com­pres­sum. It is com­mon for giant pan­golins to carry an in­fected tick on their skin and scales and play an im­por­tant role in the spread of this bac­te­ria to dif­fer­ent hosts. (Hua, et al., 2015; Me­di­an­nikov, et al., 2012)

Eco­nomic Im­por­tance for Hu­mans: Pos­i­tive

Hu­mans ben­e­fit from giant pan­golins in many dif­fer­ent ways. The first is that it pro­vides a cheaper al­ter­na­tive of pro­tein for local pop­u­la­tions. In gen­eral, all types of bush­meat are more af­ford­able for lo­cals and hunt­ing bush­meat pro­vides in­come for local in­di­vid­u­als. The tra­di­tional med­i­c­i­nal use of pan­golins is ex­ten­sive in Africa. Un­like other an­i­mals used for tra­di­tional med­i­cine, every body part and age set of giant pan­golins can be used for a spe­cific pur­pose. Med­i­c­i­nal prop­er­ties can range from treat­ing stom­ach dis­or­ders, pre­vent­ing mis­car­riages and other re­pro­duc­tive com­pli­ca­tions, treat­ing men­tal dis­or­ders and even pro­tec­tion from spir­i­tual at­tacks and cast­ing love spells. A wide range of med­i­c­i­nal treat­ments using pan­golins are com­mon in both African and Asian tra­di­tional med­i­cine. How­ever, it is im­por­tant to note that the ef­fi­cacy of these tra­di­tional uses is not proven. One ben­e­fit to hu­mans that may go un­no­ticed is how much giant pan­golins and other pan­golin species in Africa ef­fec­tively con­trol and reg­u­late in­sect pop­u­la­tions, which have the po­ten­tial to be a sig­nif­i­cant nui­sance to hu­mans. (Soewu and Ay­o­dele, 2009; Will­cox and Nambu, 2007)

• Positive Impacts
• food
• body parts are source of valuable material
• source of medicine or drug
• controls pest population

Eco­nomic Im­por­tance for Hu­mans: Neg­a­tive

The species Am­bly­omma com­pres­sion is a tick with a high speci­ficity for M. gi­gan­tea. These ticks are par­a­sites that are often hosts to spot­ted fever group (SRG) rick­ettsia, a bac­terium re­spon­si­ble for ill­ness among trav­ellers and lo­cals in Sub-Sa­ha­ran Africa. In one study, three pan­golins (M. gi­gan­tea) con­tained a total of 12 A. com­pres­sum and ap­prox­i­mately 50% of them were in­fected with the bac­te­ria Rick­ettsia africae. Rick­ettsia africae is a dan­ger­ous bac­terium re­spon­si­ble for African tick-bite fever, a se­ri­ous health con­cern for hu­mans along­side malaria. Human con­tact with pan­golins has in­creased due to higher de­mand in bush­meat, body parts for med­i­c­i­nal pur­poses and poach­ing for il­le­gal trad­ing to other coun­tries. (Freed­man, et al., 2006; Me­di­an­nikov, et al., 2012; Soewu and Ay­o­dele, 2009)

• Negative Impacts
• injures humans
  • causes disease in humans

Con­ser­va­tion Sta­tus

Under the IUCN List M. gi­gan­tea was clas­si­fied as near threat­ened in 2008 and is now clas­si­fied as Vul­ner­a­ble with de­clin­ing pop­u­la­tion num­bers con­tin­u­ing. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser­vices even go on to say that pan­golins may be “among the most traf­ficked mam­mals in the world”. All pan­golin species are listed in Ap­pen­dix II of Con­ven­tion of In­ter­na­tional Trade in En­dan­gered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. De­spite their dwin­dling num­bers, there con­tin­ues to be many seizures of unau­tho­rized ex­ports of African pan­golins to Asian mar­kets. The de­tec­tion of pan­golin smug­gling is low and it is be­lieved that the rate of il­le­gal poach­ing oc­cur­ring in Africa is far greater than cur­rently doc­u­mented. In­creases in African pan­golin poach­ing to ship to Asian mar­kets are a re­sult of the na­tive Asian species being over hunted. There are no data on M. gi­gan­tea on the US Fed­eral list but M. tem­minckii (the ground pan­golin), an­other African pan­golin closely re­lated to M. gi­gan­tea is listed as En­dan­gered on the US Fed­eral list.

Pan­golins are used ex­ten­sively for med­i­c­i­nal pur­poses across Africa. In one study, a total of 178 pan­golin car­casses were sold in the African mar­ket for tra­di­tional pur­poses, of those re­cip­i­ents 90% were un­aware of the con­ser­va­tion sta­tus of pan­golins, 55% only had a pri­mary ed­u­ca­tion, 14% ad­mit­ted to pay­ing hunters to de­lib­er­ately hunt pan­golins when needed and over 98% of these hunters had no other means of in­come, Most (95%) of re­cip­i­ents were ap­a­thetic to­wards pan­golins, be­liev­ing that all an­i­mals on earth were meant to serve a pur­pose for hu­mans. This men­tal­ity, the high de­mand for poach­ing, and a lack of in­sight on their con­ser­va­tion sta­tus and life his­tory traits poses a huge threat to M. gi­gan­tea and all of the other pan­golin species. An­other con­cern is that all age classes, ju­ve­nile to late adult, are used in med­ical treat­ments, with each age class serv­ing spe­cific pur­poses. Along­side tra­di­tional med­i­cine, pan­golins are im­por­tant as a local bush­meat.

An­other con­cern to con­ser­va­tion is the im­mense dif­fi­culty in keep­ing pan­golin species alive and healthy in cap­tiv­ity. Many zoos have at­tempted and al­most all species have died quickly and painfully from dis­ease and other causes. If a species were to be­come ex­tinct in the wild, there is cur­rently no hope­ful al­ter­na­tive of a cap­tive breed­ing pro­gram. If the rate of hunt­ing does not change, M. gi­gan­tea will likely be­come ex­tinct in the near fu­ture. Ed­u­cat­ing local pop­u­la­tions and the rest of the world about the con­ser­va­tion sta­tus of M. gi­gan­tea and its life his­to­ries may help al­le­vi­ate hunt­ing pres­sures and de­creased com­mer­cial­iza­tion in Africa. (Brautigam and Howes, 1994; Chal­len­der and Hy­wood, 2012; Kwame Boakye, et al., 2015; Sodeinde and Soewu, 1999; Soewu and Ay­o­dele, 2009; Will­cox and Nambu, 2007)

• IUCN Red List

  Near Threatened
  More information

• IUCN Red List

  Near Threatened
  More information

• US Federal List

  Endangered

• CITES

  Appendix II

Other Com­ments

Fam­ily Manidae was orig­i­nally in­cluded in the order Eden­tata along­side sloths, ar­madil­los and anteaters be­cause of its lack of teeth, but these sim­i­lar­i­ties are now con­sid­ered to be a re­sult of con­ver­gent evo­lu­tion. Giant pan­golins and the rest of Fam­ily Manidae are placed in their own sep­a­rate order Pholi­dota and are more closely re­lated to order Car­nivora. Ac­cord­ing to local leg­ends, pan­golins will set­tle into an ant’s nest and crush the ants that reach under its scales. Keep­ing the now dead ants un­der­neath their scales, they will then sub­merge them­selves in water and allow the ants to float to the top to con­sume them, cre­at­ing what is called an "ant bath". (Nowak, 1991)

Con­trib­u­tors

Claire Gal­lagher Fen­ton (au­thor), Uni­ver­sity of Man­i­toba, Jane Wa­ter­man (ed­i­tor), Uni­ver­sity of Man­i­toba, Tanya Dewey (ed­i­tor), Uni­ver­sity of Michi­gan-Ann Arbor.

Ref­er­ences

Botha, J., T. Gaudin. 2007. An Early Pliocene Pan­golin (Mam­malia; Pholi­dota) from Lange­ban­weg, South Africa. Jour­nal of Ver­te­brate Pa­le­on­tol­ogy, 27.2: 484-491.

Brautigam, A., J. Howes. 1994. Re­cent In­for­ma­tion on the Sta­tus and Uti­liza­tion of African Pan­golins. TRAF­FIC Bul­letin, 15.1: 15-22.

Chal­len­der, D., L. Hy­wood. 2012. African Pan­golins Under In­creased Pres­sure From Poach­ing and In­ter­con­ti­nen­tal Trade. TRAF­FIC Bul­letin, 24.2: 53-55.

Doran, G., D. All­brook. 1973. The Tongue and As­so­ci­ated Struc­tures in Two Species of African Pan­golins, Manis Gi­gan­tea and Manis Tri­cus­pis. Jour­nal of Mam­mal­ogy, 54.4: 887-899.

Dorst, J., P. Dan­de­lot. 1972. A Field Guide to the Larger Mam­mals of Africa. St. James Place, Lon­don: Collins.

Ee, C. 1966. A Note on Breed­ing the Cape Pan­golin Manis Tem­ni­incki at Bloem­fontein Zoo. In­ter­na­tional Zoo Year­book, 6.1: 163-164.

Freed­man, D., L. Weld, P. Kozarsky, T. Fisk, R. Von Robins, J. Key­stone, P. Pandey, M. Cetron. 2006. Spec­trum of Dis­ease and Re­la­tion to Place of Ex­po­sure Among Ill Re­turned Trav­el­ers. New Eng­land Jour­nalof Med­i­cine, 355.9: 119-130.

Heath, M., I. Coul­son. 1997. Home Range Size and Dis­tri­b­u­tion in a Wild pop­u­la­tion of Cape Pan­golins, Manis Tem­minckii, in North-West Zim­babwe. African Jour­nal of Ecol­ogy, 35.2: 94-109.

Hua, L., S. Gong, F. Wang, W. Li, Y. Ge, X. Li, F. Hou. 2015. Cap­tive Breed­ing of Pan­golins: Cur­rent Sta­tus, Prob­lems and Fu­ture Prospects. ZooKeys, 507: 99-114.

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