Diversity
The family Scyliorhinidae is the largest shark family, with at least 15 genera and
over 100 species. Their common name, catsharks, likely derives from their elongated,
cat-like eyes, although their scientific name is based on the Greek words, “Scylla,”
meaning “a shark,” and “rhinos,” meaning “nose.” Some members of Scyliorhinidae are
also commonly known as dogfish. Members of this family tend to be small, usually less
than 1 m long, and are harmless to humans. Most catsharks live in seas above the upper
continental slope, a location that makes it difficult to observe these sharks and
collect specimens. Therefore, much information about catsharks remains to be discovered.
Geographic Range
Catsharks occur in warmer seas around the globe. Many species of catshark are endemic
to certain locations, for example seas off Australia or South Africa. Some, such as
Apristurus laurussoni
, venture into the Arctic Ocean, but most live between 40 degrees north and south
latitudes. Catsharks, along with other members of the order
Carcharhiniformes
, make up the majority of sharks in many tropical and warm temperate seas.
- Biogeographic Regions
- nearctic
- palearctic
- oriental
- ethiopian
- neotropical
- australian
- oceanic islands
- arctic ocean
- indian ocean
- atlantic ocean
- pacific ocean
- mediterranean sea
- Other Geographic Terms
- cosmopolitan
Habitat
Catsharks most frequently live near the bottom, ranging from shallow intertidal zones
to depths of more than 2000 m. Many occur along continental and insular slopes, and
this deepwater habitat makes many catsharks difficult to observe and collect. Near
Australia, catsharks have been observed inhabiting ledges and caves, seagrass or kelp
beds, coastal reefs, and both sandy and rocky bottoms. Some catsharks (members of
Parmaturus
and probably
Cephalurus
) are able to live in benthic habitats tolerable to few other fishes: enlarged branchial
(gill) regions enable them to survive very low oxygen levels, high temperatures, and
high salinity.
- Habitat Regions
- temperate
- tropical
- saltwater or marine
- Other Habitat Features
- intertidal or littoral
Physical Description
Catsharks (family Scyliorhinidae) are small sharks. Most are less than 80 cm long,
but some, i.e.
Scyliorhinus stellaris
, attain a length of at least 1.6 m. The bodies of catsharks are fusiform (cylindrical,
tapering at the ends) to slightly depressed. The snout may be short or elongated,
and sometimes forms a bell shape when seen from above or below. This family has elongated,
catlike eyes situated high on the sides of the head. They possess rudimentary nictitating
lower eyelids. These membranes, essentially a third eyelid, can cover the exposed
portion of the eye, since, as in all sharks, the upper and lower eyelids of catsharks
cannot completely cover the eyeball. Catsharks have moderately large spiracles, or
respiratory openings, and five pairs of gill slits. Teeth are small and multicuspid,
with 40 to 111 rows of teeth in each jaw. In some cases the rear teeth are comblike.
In various species of catshark from at least seven genera, females and adult males
have different tooth shape. This is called sexual heterodonty, and it occurs most
strongly in smaller species of catshark. Adult males in these cases tend to have much
larger teeth than females or immature males, and larger, higher, and differently-shaped
cusps. One researcher suggests that the modifications of the teeth in adult males
may contribute to their ability to grasp a female during courtship. In all catsharks,
the base of the first dorsal fin is opposite or behind the base of the first pelvic
fin. There are two dorsal fins, both without spines. Anal and caudal fins are also
present. Catsharks may be a plain color ranging from grayish to dark brown, or may
have color patterns of blotches, spots, or saddles. Like other sharks, catsharks are
covered with
placoid
scales. All sharks have a valvular intestine, and in catsharks the valve has a conicospiral
shape, with between five and 21 turns.
- Other Physical Features
- heterothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- sexes alike
- sexes shaped differently
Development
Catsharks begin life inside spindle-shaped egg cases known to beachcombers as “mermaids’
purses.” In most cases the embryo develops, inside its egg case, within the mother’s
uterus until it is almost ready to hatch. Then the mother deposits the egg on the
sea bottom or other surface. Long, curling tendrils extend from each of the four corners
of an egg case to help secure it to the substrate. Slits in the tendrils allow water
to flow through the egg case. The young catshark continues to develop until it hatches,
looking like a miniature adult. Hatching time ranges from less than a month to more
than a year. There is no larval stage. In about 10% of catsharks, from the genera
Galeus
,
Halaelurus
, and
Cephalurus
, the embryo completes its entire development inside the mother and is born directly
into the sea. Male carcharhinids, including catsharks, have reached sexual maturity
when their clasper (male organ for internally fertilizing a female) cartilages have
become calcified and rigid, rather than small, soft, and flexible as in immature males.
The presence of large ovaries with follicles marks adulthood in females.
Reproduction
Only a few species of
elasmobranch
(subclass including all sharks and rays) fishes have been observed during courtship
and mating. However, sharks have a system that involves internal fertilization, and
elasmobranch fishes have relatively complex endocrine (hormonal) systems. Based on
knowledge of other vertebrates with similar systems, it is likely that females signal
to males through chemical or behavioral cues to indicate when their hormonal state
is appropriate for mating. Some female sharks have been observed behaving in specific
ways prior to mating, followed by passive behavior during copulation that permits
the biting and grasping behavior of the male. It is likely that some catsharks participate
in this pattern. Mating in some sharks lasts for 15 to 20 minutes, but specific information
regarding length of copulation in catsharks was not found. In order to inseminate
the female, the male inserts into her one of his two claspers, organs that are grooved
extensions of the rear bases of the pelvic fins. In most catsharks the clasper groove
is covered by soft tissue, forming a tunnel down which semen travels into the female.
In at least one species of catshark,
Scyliorhinus canicula
, the female is able to store sperm for delayed insemination.
At least 90% of known catsharks are oviparous, meaning they lay eggs. Many of these
catsharks produce eggs all year, with seasonal increases in the number of females
laying eggs. Most catsharks have a system called single oviparity, in which an egg
develops inside each oviduct and is deposited outside the female, remaining attached
to the substrate until it hatches. Hatching time may be less than a month or nearly
a year. At least one species of
Galeus
and four species of
Halaelurus
have multiple oviparity. In this case several eggs develop in each oviduct, and hatching
time tends to be shorter (23 to 36 days in
Halaelurus lineatus
). Catshark egg cases, made from a keratin-like collagen, tend to be rectangular in
shape, with rounded sides and narrow ends. Tendrils from each corner help anchor the
egg to the substrate. A special gland in the female, unique to
elasmobranchs
and known as the oviducal, nidamental, or shell gland, produces the egg case.
Although egg cases provide a tough protective shield, developing embryos inside them
are still vulnerable to predation. Some sharks have evolved a system called ovoviviparity
or aplacental viviparity to protect their young until a later stage of development.
It is estimated that oviparity evolved into viviparity at least 18 times within Chondrichthyes
(class that includes sharks). Ovoviviparous sharks give birth to live young, and a
few members of Scyliorhinidae (from the genera
Galeus
,
Halaelurus
, and
Cephalurus
) fall into this category. In this system, the egg is retained inside the uterus,
and the young catshark develops there until it is born directly into the sea and can
swim away like a miniature adult. Only one young at a time develops within the uterus.
Some ovoviviparous sharks secrete a uterine fluid that supplements the nutrition the
developing young receives from the egg. No information was found to verify whether
or not ovoviviparous catsharks share this characteristic.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- seasonal breeding
- year-round breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- fertilization
- ovoviviparous
- oviparous
No parental care has been observed in catsharks. Female catsharks contribute extensively
to the survival of offspring by protecting them internally during development and
even producing secretions that provide nutrition.
- Parental Investment
-
pre-fertilization
- provisioning
-
protecting
- female
-
pre-hatching/birth
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
Lifespan/Longevity
No specific information was found regarding lifespan in Scyliorhinidae. Sharks in
general, however, tend to mature slowly and be long-lived.
Behavior
Catsharks are relatively slow-moving and non-migratory. Observers have noted that
some catsharks in
Asymbolus
and
Cephaloscyllium
are nocturnal. Others, like
sawtail sharks
, appear to group according to sex. One genus within Scyliorhinidae,
swell sharks
, can swallow air or water to inflate immensely. There is no evidence that any catsharks
display territoriality, which may be due to the fact that most food sources for sharks
are difficult to defend.
Communication and Perception
Catsharks, like other
elasmobranchs
, have a high sensitivity to electric fields created by the movement of water, of
other fishes, and even the movement of the earth. In experiments
Scyliorhinus canicula
, for example, demonstrated sensitivity to extremely low voltage gradients. In principle,
sharks can use this sense to navigate according to the earth’s magnetic fields, and
to detect prey. The special receptors used for this mode of perception are called
the ampullae of Lorenzini, distributed around the shark’s head. Catsharks, like all
other fishes, sense their environment hydrodynamically through the lateral line, a
series of pores connecting a complex internal canal system with the outside water.
They also possess, like other
elasmobranchs
, pit organs that lie between the bases of scales and add to information provided
by the lateral line. Members of the family Scyliorhinidae are raptorial predators,
and therefore have keen senses of hearing, taste, and smell that help them sense and
find food sources. Experiments on species of
Scyliorhinidae
suggest that the pineal gland in the brain may serve as a keen light sensor that
cues the fish’s behavior to periodic changes in light.
Food Habits
Small fish and invertebrates make up the diet of most catsharks. Some swellsharks,
for example
Cephaloscyllium ventriosum
(
see image
), are sluggish bottom feeders that prey on dead or sleeping fish or crustaceans.
Others have more active tactics to capture prey. For example,
pyjama sharks
, (
see image
) hide among squid eggs; they wait for the parent squid to become accustomed to a
shark among its eggs, then devour the squid when it returns.
- Primary Diet
- carnivore
Predation
The most obvious anti-predator tactic among catsharks is that of the
swell sharks
, who are able to expand themselves enormously by swallowing air or water. All sharks
are home to various parasites, especially in the skin, digestive system, and gills.
Catsharks fall victim to predators even inside their tough, leathery egg cases, which
are eaten by a variety of organisms from snails to possibly whales. Researchers have
observed holes made by boring organisms in the egg cases of various species, including
Cephaloscyllium ventriosum
.
Ecosystem Roles
Catsharks occur around the globe in warm temperate seas, and therefore are a consistent
predator on populations of squid, crustaceans, cephalopods, and small fishes. Catsharks,
especially smaller specimens, provide food for other families of sharks and other
large fishes.
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Some catsharks, for example
Scyliorhinus
in European seas, are important for fisheries. Deepwater species like some members
of
Apristurus
have oil-rich livers but are not currently considered of commercial value. In general,
humans capture and eat sharks around the world, but no significant commercial use
was described for catsharks in particular. Some of the larger catsharks, like
Scyliorhinus stellaris
, are considered sport fish. Other species, like
Scyliorhinus canicula
, have been used for dissection in British educational institutions.
- Positive Impacts
- food
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Catsharks are harmless to humans. One species,
Cephaloscyllium laticeps
, apparently can be a nuisance to lobster fishermen in parts of Australia when it
enters lobster traps.
Conservation Status
Sharks in general are vulnerable to overfishing. They grow and mature slowly, and
the size of the adult population closely determines the number of young produced,
due to their “slow” reproductive strategy of investing a great deal of energy in relatively
few young over a lifetime. As of 2001, one species of catshark was listed as vulnerable
(facing a high risk of extinction in the wild), and eight species of catshark were
listed as near threatened (approaching vulnerable status). Twenty species were listed
as data deficient, meaning that not enough information has been collected to assess
whether or not the species is threatened. These species may be threatened, however,
especially if their geographic range is limited and few specimens have been found
for data collection.
Other Comments
The earliest known fossils of catsharks date from the Upper Jurassic of Germany. Scyliorhinidae
is the oldest group within the order Carcharhiniformes.
Additional Links
Contributors
Tanya Dewey (editor), Animal Diversity Web.
Monica Weinheimer (author), Animal Diversity Web.
- Nearctic
-
living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Palearctic
-
living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- oriental
-
found in the oriental region of the world. In other words, India and southeast Asia.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Ethiopian
-
living in sub-Saharan Africa (south of 30 degrees north) and Madagascar.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Neotropical
-
living in the southern part of the New World. In other words, Central and South America.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Australian
-
Living in Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, New Guinea and associated islands.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- oceanic islands
-
islands that are not part of continental shelf areas, they are not, and have never been, connected to a continental land mass, most typically these are volcanic islands.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Arctic Ocean
-
the body of water between Europe, Asia, and North America which occurs mostly north of the Arctic circle.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Atlantic Ocean
-
the body of water between Africa, Europe, the southern ocean (above 60 degrees south latitude), and the western hemisphere. It is the second largest ocean in the world after the Pacific Ocean.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Pacific Ocean
-
body of water between the southern ocean (above 60 degrees south latitude), Australia, Asia, and the western hemisphere. This is the world's largest ocean, covering about 28% of the world's surface.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- cosmopolitan
-
having a worldwide distribution. Found on all continents (except maybe Antarctica) and in all biogeographic provinces; or in all the major oceans (Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific.
- temperate
-
that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).
- tropical
-
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.
- saltwater or marine
-
mainly lives in oceans, seas, or other bodies of salt water.
- benthic
-
Referring to an animal that lives on or near the bottom of a body of water. Also an aquatic biome consisting of the ocean bottom below the pelagic and coastal zones. Bottom habitats in the very deepest oceans (below 9000 m) are sometimes referred to as the abyssal zone. see also oceanic vent.
- coastal
-
the nearshore aquatic habitats near a coast, or shoreline.
- intertidal or littoral
-
the area of shoreline influenced mainly by the tides, between the highest and lowest reaches of the tide. An aquatic habitat.
- heterothermic
-
having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- seasonal breeding
-
breeding is confined to a particular season
- year-round breeding
-
breeding takes place throughout the year
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- fertilization
-
union of egg and spermatozoan
- internal fertilization
-
fertilization takes place within the female's body
- ovoviviparous
-
reproduction in which eggs develop within the maternal body without additional nourishment from the parent and hatch within the parent or immediately after laying.
- oviparous
-
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.
- natatorial
-
specialized for swimming
- diurnal
-
- active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
- nocturnal
-
active during the night
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- sedentary
-
remains in the same area
- solitary
-
lives alone
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- electric
-
uses electric signals to communicate
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- electric
-
uses electric signals to communicate
- magnetic
-
(as perception channel keyword). This animal has a special ability to detect the Earth's magnetic fields.
- food
-
A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.
- carnivore
-
an animal that mainly eats meat
- piscivore
-
an animal that mainly eats fish
- molluscivore
-
eats mollusks, members of Phylum Mollusca
- scavenger
-
an animal that mainly eats dead animals
References
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Compagno, L. 1988. Sharks of the Order Carcharhiniformes . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
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