Geographic Range
Silvered leaf monkeys,
Trachypithecus cristatus
, are found throughout Southeastern Asia and Indonesia, including the Malayan Peninsula,
Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Thailand, and the Natuna Islands. One subspecies,
T. c. vigilans
, is found only on the Natuna Islands. The other subspecies,
T. c. cristatus
, is found in all areas to which the species is endemic.
Habitat
The habitat of
T. cristatus
is very similar to that of other members of its subfamily
Colobinae
. Silvered leaf monkeys primarily inhabit dense forests, but their habitat can vary
somewhat depending on the region. In Java and Sumatra, they live in the trees of inland
forests, whereas on the Malaysian Peninsula, they live in the mangrove and sub-coastal
forests. They have also been found in bamboo forests, on plantations, and in swamp
forests. Because the monkeys are largely arboreal, they rarely leave the trees. Occasionally,
they come down to the ground, but retreat quickly if there is a threat of danger.
- Habitat Regions
- tropical
- terrestrial
- Terrestrial Biomes
- forest
- rainforest
- scrub forest
- Wetlands
- swamp
- Other Habitat Features
- agricultural
Physical Description
Trachypithecus cristatus
is similar in appearance to other colobines in that it is small in size, has a long
tail, and dense fur. Also common to colobines is an under-bite in which the lower
jaw projects out further than the upper jaw. The genus
Trachypithecus
is distinguished from other colobines by its prominent nasal bones, a well-developed
coronal crest, and poorly developed brow ridges. There is also a reduction in the
size of the first digit (thumb) facilitating the brachiating movements they utilize.
The fore and hind limbs are more equal in length than most other cercopithecids, or
Old World Monkeys, suggesting that the group previously occupied a more terrestrial
habitat.
Silvered leaf monkeys get their name from the coloring of their pelage. There is some
variation in the color of their fur, including brown, gray, brownish-gray, or black.
No matter what the color, some hairs are gray-white and give a silver appearance.
Polymorphisms are very rare; the best known is a red morph that exists in Borneo.
The hands and feet are prehensile, hairless, and usually black in color. Males and
females are difficult to distinguish from one another. The only visible difference
is irregular white patching on the inside of the flanks of females. Males are also
slightly larger than females: females are 89% of the body weight of the males.
Newborns have orange fur and white colored hands, feet, and face. The skin changes
color within days of birth to black, as in the adults of this species. The orange
fur changes to the adult color within three to five months.
Body length in males ranges from 52.4 cm to 56.0 cm, whereas females are typically
46.5 cm to 49.6 cm. Both sexes have a tail that is longer than their body; tail length
ranges from 63 cm to 84 cm. Male body weight averages 7.1 kg and female body weight
is about 6.2 kg. Newborns are about 20 cm and 0.4 kg at birth. They reach their adult
size at about 5 years of age.
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- homoiothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- sexes alike
- male larger
Reproduction
Groups of
T. cristatus
are generally one-male groups in which one male defends and mates with multiple females.
All-male groups as well as single males are also found. Occasionally, a male from
an all-male unit or an individual male will challenge the male of a male/female group.
If the challenger presides over the defending male, infanticide usually occurs. Females
commonly care for young of other mothers in the group, and often even allow other
young to nurse.
- Mating System
- polygynous
- cooperative breeder
Trachypithecus cristatus
reproduction has not been widely studied, however a few facts are known. There is
no limited season for copulation, although there is a birth peak from December to
May when there is an abundance of food. The gestation period is 6 to 7 months, and
the estrous cycle is 24 days. Females usually give birth to no more than one infant
per year. Twins have occurred, but are very rare. Females reach sexual maturity at
4 years of age, whereas males mature between 4 and 5 years of age.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- year-round breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- fertilization
- viviparous
There is little information available about parental care of young, however, being
mammals, silvered leaf monkeys invest a great deal of time and care into offspring.
Mothers nurse their young for months after birth. Females, as well as males, teach
their young, play with them, and protect them from danger. However, typically infants
approach males to be carried and to play. Young are well developed when born. Their
eyes are open and their forearms are strong, allowing them to cling to the mother.
- Parental Investment
- altricial
- precocial
- male parental care
- female parental care
-
pre-fertilization
-
protecting
- male
-
protecting
-
pre-hatching/birth
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- male
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-weaning/fledging
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- male
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-independence
-
provisioning
- male
- female
-
protecting
- male
- female
-
provisioning
- extended period of juvenile learning
Lifespan/Longevity
The lifespan of
T. cristatus
has rarely been recorded. In captivity, the maximum lifespan is 29 years. Animals
in the wild generally live about 20 years, although due to difficulty in making sustained
observations in the wild, exact longevity in the wild is unknown.
Behavior
The behavior of
T. cristatus
is not well known. Like many primates,
T. cristatus
is a social species. Individuals form groups consisting of one male and 9 to 48 females,
depending on the location. Juveniles usually disperse from their natal group at maturity.
Being diurnal, the majority of activity for this species is from sunrise to sunset.
Trachypithecus cristatus
is a very shy species. Individuals are occasionally seen in the vicinity of human
settlements, but retreat quickly if they feel threatened.
Trachypithecus cristatus travels primarily via brachiation, although individuals may walk on the ground when traveling with the group. They show a low level of aggression within the social group. Sociosexual, gestural, and vocal interactions are the common features of the social relationships of these monkeys. This may be due to the abundance of food in their habitat and their feeding behavior of facing toward the tree while eating. These both decrease the frequency of interaction with other members of the group, resulting in less need for tight group cooperation.
Although the species is fairly peaceful, there is occasionally conflict with neighboring
groups of the same species over territory. Many times, the groups will live in peace
with each other in close proximity after the initial conflict. There is some aggression
within groups, and this may be related to sex. Generally, there are only intraspecific
conflicts.
Trachypithecus cristatus
tends to co-exist comfortably with other species such as
Macaca fascicularis
that inhabit the same regions.
Home Range
Because this is a nomadic species, silvered leaf monkeys travel about 200 to 500 meters
throughout their territory daily. The male of the group leads the females while guiding
them with vocalizations. The territory a group occupies averages 43 hectares.
Communication and Perception
Trachypithecus cristatus
is the most silent of the colobine species. Researchers describe these monkeys as
being grave, serious, expressionless, and slow moving. They make 13 different vocalizations,
which are most common at dusk and dawn. They vocalize to signal conflict, fear, warnings,
alarms, and salutation. In addition to these vocalizations, males make threatening
calls and young call for their mothers. Although members of the species are relatively
quiet, individuals also communicate nonvocally with each other in social play, grooming,
and light fighting.
Food Habits
Silvered leaf monkeys, as their name suggests, feed primarily on leaves, with a preference
for young leaves. As herbivores, they also eat some other vegetation including fruit,
seeds, shoots, flowers, and buds. Some adaptations have been made to increase efficiency
of digesting and processing plant materials. The teeth have pointed cusps on their
two transverse ridges, and are referred to as bilophodont. The stomach has become
sacculated and contains bacteria for fermentation of the plants. The stomach is also
enlarged to hold a large amount of food, given that the food they eat is nutritionally
poor. They also contain large salivary glands that act to neutralize stomach acid
that may cause damage if seepage from the stomach occurs.
- Plant Foods
- leaves
- seeds, grains, and nuts
- fruit
- flowers
Predation
Predators of silvered leaf monkeys are common predators found throughout the forests
of southeast Asia, Thailand, and Indonesia, and include snakes, tigers, leapords,
and jackals. The forest canopy is the safest place for
T. cristatus
as there are no raptors in the area that prey on arboreal monkeys. Therefore, the
treetops act as protection for silvered leaf monkeys.
Ecosystem Roles
Like most other members of their genus,
T. cristatus
feeds on young leaves. However, their impact on their ecosystem is unknown.
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Many primates are hunted by humans in Asia for their flesh and the medicinal value
of bezoar stones found in their intestine.
Trachypithecus cristatus
, however, is the exception. Other aspects of this species that may positively affect
humans are unknown.
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Negative impact on humans is unknown and unlikely due to the rarity of these animals and the infrequency of interaction with humans.
Conservation Status
Silvered leaf monkeys are considered threatened according to IUCN RedList and are
on the CITES Website, Appendix II. The species was first labeled threatened in 1996.
Their status is threatened due to the habitat destruction occuring in the forests
of their region for agriculture.
Other Comments
Trachypithecus cristatus
has different common names in different countries. In English, they are referred
to as silvered leaf monkeys, whereas in India they are referred to as silvered langurs.
In their endemic area of Malaya, they are called lutong.
Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles originally described the species in 1821. He gave them
the name
Simia cristata
. The scientific name was later changed to
Presbytis cristatus
. The genus
Presbytis
has been broken into 4 new groups, including the genus
Trachypithecus
, in which
T. cristatus
is now found. The meaning of the name
Trachypithecus
comes from the Greek words "trach," meaning rough and "pithekos," meaning ape.
Cristatus
comes from the Latin word "crista," which means crest or tuft. Thus, the name was
given fitting its physical characteristics.
Additional Links
Contributors
Christine Bedore (author), Michigan State University, Barbara Lundrigan (editor, instructor), Michigan State University, Nancy Shefferly (editor), Animal Diversity Web.
- oriental
-
found in the oriental region of the world. In other words, India and southeast Asia.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- tropical
-
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.
- terrestrial
-
Living on the ground.
- forest
-
forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.
- rainforest
-
rainforests, both temperate and tropical, are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground. Epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant. Precipitation is typically not limiting, but may be somewhat seasonal.
- scrub forest
-
scrub forests develop in areas that experience dry seasons.
- swamp
-
a wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water, often dominated by woody vegetation.
- agricultural
-
living in landscapes dominated by human agriculture.
- endothermic
-
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- polygynous
-
having more than one female as a mate at one time
- cooperative breeder
-
helpers provide assistance in raising young that are not their own
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- year-round breeding
-
breeding takes place throughout the year
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- fertilization
-
union of egg and spermatozoan
- viviparous
-
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female.
- altricial
-
young are born in a relatively underdeveloped state; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth/hatching. In birds, naked and helpless after hatching.
- young precocial
-
young are relatively well-developed when born
- male parental care
-
parental care is carried out by males
- female parental care
-
parental care is carried out by females
- arboreal
-
Referring to an animal that lives in trees; tree-climbing.
- diurnal
-
- active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- nomadic
-
generally wanders from place to place, usually within a well-defined range.
- sedentary
-
remains in the same area
- territorial
-
defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement
- social
-
associates with others of its species; forms social groups.
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- herbivore
-
An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.
- folivore
-
an animal that mainly eats leaves.
References
Furuya, Y. 1961. The Social Life of Silvered Leaf Monkeys (Trachypithecus cristatus) . Primates , 3(2): 41-60.
Groves, C., R. Thorington. 1970. An Annotated Classification of the Cercopithecoidea. Pp. 629-644 in Old World Monkeys: Evolution, Systematics, and Behavior . London: Academic Press.
Groves, C., V. Weitzel. 1985. The Nomenclature and Taxonomy of the Colobine Monkeys of Java. International Journal of Primatology , 6: 399-409.
Groves, C. 2001. Primate Taxonomy . Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Harper, D. 2001. "Online Etymology Dictionary" (On-line). Accessed February 28, 2005 at http://www.etymonline.com .
Medway, L. 1970. The Monkeys of Sundaland: Ecology and Systematics of the Cercopithecids of a Humid Equatorial Environment. Pp. 513-554 in Old World Monkeys: Evolution, Systematics, and Behavior . London: Academic Press.
Medway, L. 1969. The Wild Mammals of Malaya . London: Oxford University Press.
Nowak, R. 1999. Walker's Mammals of the World . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Roonwal, M. 1977. Primates of South Asia: Ecology, Sociobiology, and Behavior . Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Streck, E. 2002. Predator Sensitive Foraging in Thomas Langurs. Pp. 76 in Eat or Be Eaten: Predator Sensitive Foraging Among Primates . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2001. Colobine Monkeys. Pp. 380-391 in Encyclopedia of Mammals , Vol. 2, 2 Edition. New York: Andromeda Oxford Limited.
Wisconsin Regional Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison. 2004. "Primate Info Net" (On-line). Accessed February 24, 2005 at http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/ .