Pandalus borealisnorthern shrimp

Ge­o­graphic Range

North­ern shrimp (Pan­dalus bo­re­alis) are com­monly found in the north­east­ern part of Nearc­tic re­gion of the North At­lantic Ocean and in the North Pa­cific Ocean off the coasts of British Co­lum­bia and east­ern Rus­sia. The Gulf of Maine, Gulf of Labrador, and north­ward to Davis Strait (be­tween Green­land and Canada) have been re­ported to con­tain north­ern shrimp as well as the Den­mark Strait (be­tween Green­land and Ice­land) and the Green­land Sea. In the Nor­we­gian re­gions (north­ern Palearc­tic re­gion), north­ern shrimp in­habit the Bar­ents Sea, Nor­we­gian Sea, and the North Sea. (Clark, et al., 2000; Haynes, 1979; Haynes and Wigley, 1969; Koeller, 2006; Mor­rier and Har­vey, 2003; "North­ern shrimp re­search in the North­ern At­lantic", 1997; Storm and Ped­er­son, 2003)

Habi­tat

North­ern shrimp in­habit ma­rine en­vi­ron­ments in polar shal­lows along the coast. They can most com­monly be found in colder wa­ters (2 °C- 6 °C) and can with­stand water as cold as -1 °C. In the Gulf of Maine, the shal­low sea floor is com­posed of mud and fine sand. It is most com­mon to find the shrimp in depths as shal­low as 100m and as deep as 600m. North­ern shrimp clus­ter to­wards the muddy floors as it is a more suit­able place to breed and spawn their eggs. They live in the shal­low in­shore for 1-2 years on the sea floor and then move to­wards the deeper wa­ters after molt­ing 5 or 6 times. These deeper en­vi­ron­ments tend to be colder from where they spawned and have a sandier sea floor. (Clark, et al., 2000; Koeller, 2006; "North­ern shrimp re­search in the North­ern At­lantic", 1997; Tag­gart, et al., 1995; Wieland and Siegstad, 2012)

  • Range depth
    100 to 600 m
    328.08 to 1968.50 ft
  • Average depth
    300 m
    984.25 ft

Phys­i­cal De­scrip­tion

At hatch­ing, all lar­vae are males, pro­gress­ing through six stages as lar­vae. In these first six stages, they mea­sure from 6mm to 20mm total length after molt­ing 5 or 6 times. Their bod­ies are semi-translu­cent with an or­ange hue. When they reach the sev­enth and eighth stage, they are con­sid­ered ju­ve­niles. They grow in length to 15mm to 21mm, and their col­ors be­come more vivid. After that stage they are con­sid­ered adult males. North­ern shrimp are ec­tother­mic and re­quire heat from their sur­round­ings to reg­u­late their body tem­per­a­ture.

Males un­dergo a sex­ual trans­for­ma­tion to fe­males, grow­ing two or three times larger and de­velop re­pro­duc­tive or­gans to carry eggs. The sex change oc­curs 1-5 years after hatch­ing de­pend­ing on the ge­o­graphic lo­ca­tion of the shrimp. In the Bar­ents Sea, it is more com­mon to see the sex change hap­pen later in life (5 years) com­pared to the Gulf of Maine (ca. 1 year).

Be­cause of this se­quen­tial her­maph­ro­ditism, males are sig­nif­i­cantly smaller than fe­males. Males av­er­age 120mm long and weigh ca. 2g, while fe­males reach lengths of 180mm and weigh as much as 3g. Males have white and or­ange stripes, while fe­males are en­tirely light or­ange. (Bergström, 1992; Koeller, 2006; Ouel­let and Al­lard, 2006; Storm and Ped­er­son, 2003; Tag­gart, et al., 1995)

  • Sexual Dimorphism
  • female larger
  • sexes colored or patterned differently
  • Range mass
    2 to 3 g
    0.07 to 0.11 oz
  • Range length
    120 to 180 mm
    4.72 to 7.09 in

De­vel­op­ment

Fe­male north­ern shrimp carry their un­fer­til­ized eggs for up to eight months be­fore fer­til­iz­ing them with stored sperm and re­leas­ing the eggs. They spawn in the shal­low coasts. All lar­vae are con­sid­ered male and mea­sure at least 6mm long. As lar­vae, the shrimp grow in stages de­ter­mined by molts. Lar­val shrimp go through six molts, and, on the sev­enth molt, they are con­sid­ered ju­ve­niles, mea­sur­ing at ca. 18.4mm in length (range 16 to 21mm). Dur­ing each molt the shrimp de­velop teeth, ap­pendages (pere­opods), and more seg­men­ta­tion (tel­son). Lar­val stages are more in­tense and rapid than the ju­ve­nile stages as they are de­vel­op­ing larger parts of their body at quicker rates (every 1 to 2 weeks). North­ern shrimp de­velop re­pro­duc­tive or­gans dur­ing ju­ve­nile molts. At this point, the shrimp are con­sid­ered adult males and will re­pro­duce once or twice be­fore molt­ing for one last time. The males av­er­age 120mm long. These shrimp tran­si­tion to fe­males, which can take up to sev­eral weeks and molts to com­plete. The fe­males av­er­age lengths of 180mm and grow in­de­ter­mi­nately. (Bergström, 1992; Haynes, 1979; Koeller, 2006; Storm and Ped­er­son, 2003; "Syn­op­sis of bi­o­log­i­cal data on the pink shrimp, Pan­dalus bo­re­alis", 1985)

Re­pro­duc­tion

Fe­male and male north­ern shrimp breed once an­nu­ally from July through Sep­tem­ber and the fe­males lay their eggs from March to May. It is un­known whether fe­males stay with their mate after breed­ing. The pre­cur­sor for fe­males is a final molt be­fore they are ap­proached by males to breed. There are pheromones re­leased by males be­fore mount­ing the back of the fe­male to sig­nal they are ready to breed. Their mat­ing sys­tem has not been doc­u­mented. ("Syn­op­sis of bi­o­log­i­cal data on the pink shrimp, Pan­dalus bo­re­alis", 1985; Tri­carico and Aquiloni, 2015)

North­ern shrimp breed an­nu­ally from July through Sep­tem­ber. The fe­males are oviparous, car­ry­ing their eggs and the stored sperm for up to eight months be­fore fer­til­iz­ing them. While car­ry­ing the eggs and sperm, the eggs are rest­ing be­tween their pleopods. The eggs are ex­ter­nally vis­i­ble on the shrimp. Once the eggs hatch, all lar­vae are con­sid­ered males. The time to in­de­pen­dence is 0 min­utes, as the young are im­me­di­ately in­de­pen­dent. Birth mass has not been re­ported.

These shrimp are protan­drous; as males ma­ture, they tran­si­tion to fe­males. Fe­males can re­pro­duce right after tran­si­tion­ing, start­ing as early as 12 months of age (though it varies re­gion­ally, and can take up to 5 years), and will con­tinue to re­pro­duce until their life ends. Males can re­pro­duce at about four months of age, be­tween their sev­enth and eighth molt and be­fore they tran­si­tion to fe­males. The num­ber of eggs car­ried by the fe­male is de­pen­dent on their size but can range from 600 to 4,900 eggs with the av­er­age of 2,000. The av­er­age pe­riod dur­ing which fe­males carry their un­fer­til­ized eggs is ca. 164 days. (Dod­son, et al., 2005; "Syn­op­sis of bi­o­log­i­cal data on the pink shrimp, Pan­dalus bo­re­alis", 1985; Tri­carico and Aquiloni, 2015)

  • Breeding interval
    Northern shrimp breed once yearly
  • Breeding season
    Northern shrimp can breed in July-September and spawn in March-June
  • Range number of offspring
    600 to 4900
  • Average number of offspring
    2000
  • Average time to independence
    0 minutes
  • Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
    12 to 60 months
  • Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
    4 (low) months

Fe­male north­ern shrimp carry their un­fer­til­ized eggs and stored sperm ex­ter­nally for up to eight months be­fore the eggs are fer­til­ized and laid. Males pro­vide no parental in­vest­ment be­yond the act of mat­ing. ("Syn­op­sis of bi­o­log­i­cal data on the pink shrimp, Pan­dalus bo­re­alis", 1985)

  • Parental Investment
  • no parental involvement
  • female parental care
  • pre-fertilization
    • protecting
      • female

Lifes­pan/Longevity

North­ern shrimp live up to a year (as males) be­fore tran­si­tion­ing into fe­males. As fe­males, they live up to 7 more years in the wild. The shrimp are kept in cap­tiv­ity as long as it takes to trans­port them to mar­kets, restau­rants or prepa­ra­tion lo­ca­tions. In the wild, north­ern shrimp are stressed by trawls and pre­da­tion, which can shorten their lifes­pan. (Kennedy, et al., 2013; "Syn­op­sis of bi­o­log­i­cal data on the pink shrimp, Pan­dalus bo­re­alis", 1985)

  • Typical lifespan
    Status: wild
    8 (high) years

Be­hav­ior

While the be­hav­ior of north­ern shrimp is not well-stud­ied, they are known to use ol­fac­tory con­tact and some vi­sual sig­nals with con­specifics. North­ern shrimp can also re­lease pheromones that other north­ern shrimp can pick up, send­ing sig­nals such as readi­ness to breed. School­ing in north­ern shrimp is dense and is de­ter­mined by size of the shrimp. Fe­males and males tend to school in dense patches near in­shore beds dur­ing the breed­ing sea­son. They are motile and so­cial in their re­gions.

Mi­gra­tion oc­curs hor­i­zon­tally and ver­ti­cally in­shore. Hor­i­zon­tal mi­gra­tion oc­curs be­cause of oceanic cur­rents and mat­ing. Ver­ti­cal mi­gra­tion oc­curs be­cause the fe­males tend to stay near the seabed when egg-lay­ing. As shrimp for­age for food at greater depths dur­ing the day, mi­gra­tion also oc­curs daily. These shrimp are di­ur­nal and feed more dur­ing the day rather than at night. (Bergström, 1992; Haynes, 1979; Jónsdóttir, 2013; Jónsdóttir, 2017; "Syn­op­sis of bi­o­log­i­cal data on the pink shrimp, Pan­dalus bo­re­alis", 1985; Tri­carico and Aquiloni, 2015)

Home Range

Home range has not been re­ported for these shrimp. North­ern shrimp stay close to where they are spawned and are mostly seden­tary. They do not de­fend a ter­ri­tory. ("Syn­op­sis of bi­o­log­i­cal data on the pink shrimp, Pan­dalus bo­re­alis", 1985; Tri­carico and Aquiloni, 2015)

Com­mu­ni­ca­tion and Per­cep­tion

North­ern shrimp have light adapt­ing hor­mones that allow their eyes to see in brighter con­di­tions. Not much is known about how north­ern shrimp can see, but most shrimp use ei­ther po­lar­ized light or move­ment de­tec­tion. Man­tis shrimp (Gon­odacty­laceus fal­ca­tus) use po­lar­ized light to com­mu­ni­cate with each other. It is a type of com­mu­ni­ca­tion sig­nal used be­tween this species and other shrimp species. It can be used to de­tect preda­tors in the area, par­a­sites, and even ri­vals. Goby shrimp (Psil­o­go­b­ius main­landi) use their an­ten­nae and front legs to push one an­other to sig­nal their pres­ence. (Fer­lund, 1976; Mar­shall, et al., 2015; Pre­ston, 1978)

Food Habits

Phy­to­plank­ton are the main source of food for the lar­val and ju­ve­nile stages for these fil­ter-feed­ing north­ern shrimp. Ariza and Ouel­let (2009) ex­am­ined the stom­ach con­tents of 30 north­ern shrimp lar­vae. They found that 50% of con­tents (by vol­ume) were phy­to­plank­ton and the rest con­sisted of parts of zoo­plank­ton and par­ti­cles from min­er­als. As the shrimp enter the adult stage, their diet con­sists of large di­atoms and zoo­plank­ton, but ma­jor­ity of what they con­sume is phy­to­plank­ton. Phy­to­plank­ton still make up more than half of their diet be­cause of this food item's avail­abil­ity. (Ariza and Ouel­let, 2009; Lin, et al., 2008; Storm and Ped­er­son, 2003; Wieland and Siegstad, 2012)

Pre­da­tion

The main preda­tors of north­ern shrimp are hu­mans (Homo sapi­ens). North­ern shrimp are the most com­mon type of shrimp con­sumed by hu­mans and are often cap­tured with large cone-shaped nets. Oc­topi and seals may also feed on them. At­lantic cod (Gadus morhua) and sil­ver hake (Mer­luc­cius bi­lin­earis) con­sume north­ern shrimp op­por­tunis­ti­cally, but the im­pact of hu­mans as preda­tors is more sub­stan­tial. (Haynes, 1979; Jónsdóttir, 2013; Jónsdóttir, 2017; "Syn­op­sis of bi­o­log­i­cal data on the pink shrimp, Pan­dalus bo­re­alis", 1985)

Ecosys­tem Roles

North­ern shrimp con­sume plank­ton and other mi­cro-or­gan­isms. They are con­sumed by many fish, oc­topi, and seals; how­ever, hu­mans are the pri­mary con­sumer.

North­ern shrimp are hosts for in­ter­nal par­a­sites that in­clude isopods (Proboyrus bui­tendijki, Bopy­roides hyp­poly­tes, Hemi­arthrus ab­dom­i­nalis), an apos­tome cil­i­ate (Gymno­din­ioides pacifica), and a crus­tacean par­a­site from the class The­cos­traca (Sylon hip­poly­tes). ("Syn­op­sis of bi­o­log­i­cal data on the pink shrimp, Pan­dalus bo­re­alis", 1985)

Com­men­sal/Par­a­sitic Species

Eco­nomic Im­por­tance for Hu­mans: Pos­i­tive

North­ern shrimp are a com­mon food served in restau­rants and of­fered for pur­chase in stores. Com­mer­cial fish­ing pro­vides a ma­jor­ity of the shrimp seen in stores and restau­rants.

In 2005-2006, Maine fish­eries har­vested roughly 2000 met­ric tons of north­ern shrimp. An­nual prof­its at this time av­er­aged $6 mil­lion. Cur­rently, the stocks in the Gulf of Maine have been de­pleted and fish­ing is pro­hib­ited until 2024. ("ASMFC north­ern shrimp sec­tion ex­tends mora­to­rium on com­mer­cial and recre­ational fish­ing through 2024", 2021; "North­ern shrimp re­search in the North­ern At­lantic", 1997)

  • Positive Impacts
  • food

Eco­nomic Im­por­tance for Hu­mans: Neg­a­tive

There are no known ad­verse eco­nomic ef­fects of north­ern shrimp on hu­mans.

Con­ser­va­tion Sta­tus

North­ern shrimp have no spe­cial sta­tus on CITES ap­pen­dices, the State of Michi­gan List and the United States En­dan­gered Species Act List. North­ern shrimp have not been eval­u­ated on the IUCN Red List.

Ocean warm­ing im­pacts the pop­u­la­tions of north­ern shrimp. Trawl­ing ac­counts for the abun­dance of catches, and poorly-reg­u­lated har­vest­ing by hu­mans is a major threat. Even if in­di­vid­u­als are not caught by trawl­ing, it causes stress to the re­main­ing shrimp pop­u­la­tions and can cause them to die be­fore reach­ing full ma­tu­rity.

Con­ser­va­tion ef­forts are being made by At­lantic States Ma­rine Fish­eries Com­mis­sion (ASMFC) in the north At­lantic Ocean. Be­cause the Gulf of Maine ac­counts for the most catches in the U.S., re­stric­tions have been put in place to con­serve the cur­rent pop­u­la­tion. In 2010, the yearly sea­sonal catch from the Gulf of Maine av­er­aged 6000 met­ric tons of shrimp. In 2014, the de­cline in pop­u­la­tions of north­ern shrimp caused the num­ber to fall to under 500 met­ric tons. This led ASMFC to pro­hibit all fish­ing of north­ern shrimp until 2024 in the Gulf of Maine until pop­u­la­tions re­main steady. ("ASMFC north­ern shrimp sec­tion ex­tends mora­to­rium on com­mer­cial and recre­ational fish­ing through 2024", 2021)

Con­trib­u­tors

Daphne Sturniolo (au­thor), Rad­ford Uni­ver­sity, Sierra Felty (ed­i­tor), Rad­ford Uni­ver­sity, Bianca Plow­man (ed­i­tor), Rad­ford Uni­ver­sity, Karen Pow­ers (ed­i­tor), Rad­ford Uni­ver­sity, Vic­to­ria Rauler­son (ed­i­tor), Rad­ford Uni­ver­sity, Christo­pher Woz­niak (ed­i­tor), Rad­ford Uni­ver­sity, Genevieve Bar­nett (ed­i­tor), Col­orado State Uni­ver­sity.

Glossary

Nearctic

living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.

World Map

Palearctic

living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.

World Map

bilateral symmetry

having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.

chemical

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

coastal

the nearshore aquatic habitats near a coast, or shoreline.

diurnal
  1. active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
ectothermic

animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature

external fertilization

fertilization takes place outside the female's body

female parental care

parental care is carried out by females

fertilization

union of egg and spermatozoan

filter-feeding

a method of feeding where small food particles are filtered from the surrounding water by various mechanisms. Used mainly by aquatic invertebrates, especially plankton, but also by baleen whales.

food

A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.

indeterminate growth

Animals with indeterminate growth continue to grow throughout their lives.

iteroparous

offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).

migratory

makes seasonal movements between breeding and wintering grounds

motile

having the capacity to move from one place to another.

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.

oviparous

reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.

pheromones

chemicals released into air or water that are detected by and responded to by other animals of the same species

phytoplankton

photosynthetic or plant constituent of plankton; mainly unicellular algae. (Compare to zooplankton.)

planktivore

an animal that mainly eats plankton

polar

the regions of the earth that surround the north and south poles, from the north pole to 60 degrees north and from the south pole to 60 degrees south.

polarized light

light waves that are oriented in particular direction. For example, light reflected off of water has waves vibrating horizontally. Some animals, such as bees, can detect which way light is polarized and use that information. People cannot, unless they use special equipment.

protandrous

condition of hermaphroditic animals (and plants) in which the male organs and their products appear before the female organs and their products

saltwater or marine

mainly lives in oceans, seas, or other bodies of salt water.

seasonal breeding

breeding is confined to a particular season

sedentary

remains in the same area

sexual

reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female

social

associates with others of its species; forms social groups.

sperm-storing

mature spermatozoa are stored by females following copulation. Male sperm storage also occurs, as sperm are retained in the male epididymes (in mammals) for a period that can, in some cases, extend over several weeks or more, but here we use the term to refer only to sperm storage by females.

tactile

uses touch to communicate

visual

uses sight to communicate

zooplankton

animal constituent of plankton; mainly small crustaceans and fish larvae. (Compare to phytoplankton.)

Ref­er­ences

At­lantic States Ma­rine Fish­eries Com­mis­sion. ASMFC north­ern shrimp sec­tion ex­tends mora­to­rium on com­mer­cial and recre­ational fish­ing through 2024. None. Ar­ling­ton, VA: At­lantic States Ma­rine Fish­eries Com­mis­sion. 2021.

At­lantic States Ma­rine Fish­eries Com­mis­sion's North­ern Shrimp Tech­ni­cal Com­mit­tee. As­sess­ment re­port for Gulf of Maine north­ern shrimp. None. Ar­ling­ton, VA: At­lantic States Ma­rine Fish­eries Com­mis­sion. 2018.

Nordic Coun­cil of Min­is­ters. North­ern shrimp re­search in the North­ern At­lantic. None. Copen­hagen, Den­mark: Te­maNord Fish­eries. 1997. Ac­cessed April 10, 2022 at https://​books.​google.​com/​books?​id=JklU6fQkHpUC&​printsec=frontcover&​source=gbs_​ge_​summary_​r&​cad=0#​v=onepage&​q&​f=false.

Maine Sea Grant Pub­li­ca­tions. North­ern shrimp: A gala ad­di­tion to a win­ter's night. none. Orono, Maine: Maine Sea Grant Pub­li­ca­tions. 2006.

Na­tional Ma­rine Fish­eries Ser­vice. Syn­op­sis of bi­o­log­i­cal data on the pink shrimp, Pan­dalus bo­re­alis. NMFS 30. Mil­ford, CT: NOAA Tech­ni­cal Re­port. 1985.

Ariza, P., P. Ouel­let. 2009. Diet com­po­nents of north­ern shrimp Pan­dalus bo­re­alis first stage lar­vae in the north­west Gulf of St. Lawrence. Jour­nal of Crus­tacean Bi­ol­ogy, 29/4: 532-543.

Barr, L. 1970. Diel ver­ti­cal mi­gra­tion of Pan­dalus bo­re­alis in Kachemak Bay, Alaska. Jour­nal of the Fish­eries Board of Canada, 27/4: 669-676.

Bergström, B. 1992. Growth, growth mod­el­ling and age de­ter­mi­na­tion of Pan­dalus bo­re­alis. Ma­rine Ecol­ogy Progress Se­ries, 83/2-3: 167-183.

Bow­man, R. 1984. Food of sil­ver hake, Mer­luc­cius bi­lin­earis. Fish­ery Bul­letin, 82/1: 21-35.

Clark, S., S. Cadrin, D. Schick, P. Dio­dati, D. Mc­Car­ron, M. Arm­strong. 2000. The Gulf of Maine north­ern shrimp (Pan­dalus bo­re­alis) fish­ery: A re­view of the record. Jour­nal of North­west At­lantic Fish Sci­ence, 27: 193-226.

Dod­son, J., S. Bril­lon, Y. Lam­bert. 2005. Egg sur­vival, em­bry­onic de­vel­op­ment, and lar­val char­ac­ter­is­tics of north­ern shrimp (Pan­dalus bo­re­alis) fe­males sub­ject to dif­fer­ent tem­per­a­ture and feed­ing con­di­tions. Ma­rine Bi­ol­ogy, 147/1: 895–911.

Fer­lund, P. 1976. Struc­ture of a light-adapt­ing hor­mone from the shrimp, Pan­dalus bo­re­alis. Biochim­ica et Bio­phys­ica Acta, 439/1: 17-25.

Haynes, E., R. Wigley. 1969. Bi­ol­ogy of the north­ern shrimp, Pan­dalus bo­re­alis, in the Gulf of Maine. Trans­ac­tion of the Amer­i­can Fish­eries So­ci­ety, 98/1: 60-76.

Haynes, E. 1979. De­scrip­tion of lar­vae of the north­ern shrimp, Pan­dalus bo­re­alis, reared in Situ in Kachemak Bay, Alaska. Fish­ery Bul­letin, 77/1: 157-173.

Hop­kins, C., E. Nilssen. 1990. Pop­u­la­tion bi­ol­ogy of the deep-wa­ter prawn (Pan­dalus bo­re­alis) in Bals­fjord, north­ern Nor­way: I. Abun­dance, mor­tal­ity, and growth, 1979-1983. ICES Jour­nal of Ma­rine Bi­ol­ogy, 47/2: 148-166.

Idoine, J., J. Link. 2009. Es­ti­mates of preda­tor con­sump­tion of the north­ern shrimp Pan­dalus bo­re­alis with im­pli­ca­tions for es­ti­mates of pop­u­la­tion bio­mass in the Gulf of Maine. North Amer­i­can Jour­nal of Fish­eries Man­age­ment, 29/1: 1567–1583.

Jónsdóttir, I. 2013. In­flu­ence of in­creased cod abun­dance and tem­per­a­ture on re­cruit­ment of north­ern shrimp (Pan­dalus bo­re­alis). Ma­rine Bi­ol­ogy, 160/5: 1203-1211.

Jónsdóttir, I. 2017. Pre­da­tion on north­ern shrimp (Pan­dalus bo­re­alis) by three gadoid species. Ma­rine Bi­ol­ogy Re­search, 13/4: 447-455.

Kennedy, J., A. Woll, J. Dyb, W. Larssen. 2013. Fac­tors that af­fect vi­tal­ity of north­ern shrimp (Pan­dalus bo­re­alis, Kroyer 1838) dur­ing cap­ture and stor­age that are des­tined for live trade. Jour­nal of Shell­fish Re­search, 32/3: 807–813.

Koeller, P. 2006. In­fer­ring shrimp (Pan­dalus bo­re­alis) growth char­ac­ter­is­tics from life his­tory stage struc­ture analy­sis. Jour­nal of Shell­fish Re­search, 25/2: 595-608.

Lin, J., H. Liu, S. Cai, D. Zhang. 2008. An­ten­nal sen­silla in the genus Lysmata (Caridea). Jour­nal of Crus­tacean Bi­ol­ogy, 28/3: 433-438.

Mar­shall, N., Y. Gagnon, R. Tem­plin, M. How. 2015. Cir­cu­larly po­lar­ized light as a com­mu­ni­ca­tion sig­nal in man­tis shrimp. Cur­rent Bi­ol­ogy, 25/23: 3074-3078.

Mor­rier, G., M. Har­vey. 2003. Lab­o­ra­tory feed­ing ex­per­i­ments on zoea of north­ern shrimp Pan­dalus bo­re­alis fed with nat­ural zoo­plank­ton. Ma­rine Ecol­ogy Progress Se­ries, 265: 165-174.

Ouel­let, P., J. Al­lard. 2006. Ver­ti­cal dis­tri­b­u­tion and be­hav­ior of shrimp Pan­dalus bo­re­alis lar­val stages in ther­mally strat­i­fied water columns: Lab­o­ra­tory ex­per­i­ment and field ob­ser­va­tions. Fish­eries Oceanog­ra­phy, 15/5: 373-389.

Par­sons, D. 2005. Preda­tors of north­ern shrimp, Pan­dalus bo­re­alis (Pan­dal­i­dae), through­out the North At­lantic. Ma­rine Bi­ol­ogy Re­search, 1/1: 48-58.

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