Petaurus

Diversity

The genus Petaurus , also known as the lesser gliding possums, are known for their ability to glide between trees. Their patagium (gliding membrane) connects from their front feet to their back ankles and they change their direction and speed as they drift from tree limb to tree limb. They also have opposable thumbs to assist in climbing those trees and eating. Recently, they have been reclassified into eight distinct species.

Geographic Range

The different species of Petaurus reside in Australia, New Guinea, and other surrounding islands. There is much overlap in the species’ range, which for a long time resulted in incorrect classifications. The eastern coast of Australia is home to Petaurus norfolcensis , Petaurus gracilis , Petaurus australis , Petaurus notatus , and Petaurus breviceps . Petaurus abidi resides mainly on the island of New Guinea and Petaurus ariel resides mainly in the northwestern coastal region of Australia. In addition, Petaurus biacensis predominantly inhabits the Biak Island, just north of New Guinea. They tend to remain near coasts, where there is more vegetation, and likely all originated in Australia before colonizing the nearby islands.

• Biogeographic Regions
• australian australian
  • native native

Habitat

These animals evolved in an area where incomplete canopies were dominant, so their gliding membranes helped them get from tree to tree. Since they are great climbers, most of their time is spent up in the canopy of the eucalyptus trees, away from predators and then only glide down when they have a reason to. Their omnivorous diet works well with this habitat since they get most of their nutrition from nectar, sap, and insects which are found in the trees.

• Habitat Regions
• temperate temperate
• tropical tropical
• terrestrial terrestrial

• Terrestrial Biomes
• desert or dune desert or dune
• savanna or grassland savanna or grassland
• forest forest
• rainforest rainforest

Systematic and Taxonomic History

Within Metatheria , this genus is a part of the clade Diprotodontia which consists of the "classic" marsupials like kangaroos, koalas, and wallabies. They are further classified as a part of the family Petauridae , containing the arboreal possums of Australia. The subfamily Petaurinae originally included genus Petaurus with genus Gymnobelideus . Later research concluded that genus Gymnobelideus was more closely related to genera in other subfamilies. Members of Petaurinae have many common features such as three single-cusped upper pre-molars and slightly curved procumbent lower incisors. Although in separate sub families, Petaurus ' closest relatives are other members of Petauridae like Gymnobelideus leadbeateri , and members of genus Dactylopsila .

Physical Description

The genus Petaurus is most known for their gliding membrane that stretches from the front to hind limbs but many features can distinguish them from other gliding organisms. Their heads and bodies measure around 120-320mm with their tail measuring 150-480mm. The range is deu to differing species being of mildly differing sizes, the biggest, P. australis weighing in at 435-710 grams, and the smallest, P. breviceps weighing in at just 79-160 grams. Skull size has also been used to classify different species and was recently used to support the splitting of P. breviceps into four distinct species. In addition, their tails are semi-prehensile and fully-furred, separating Petaurus from many related groups. All species of this genus have countershading, mostly grey on their dorsal side and lighter coloring on their ventral side. P. australis differs in that it is browner in color on the dorsal side, and an orange-yellow color on their ventral side, giving them the nickname, the yellow-bellied gliders. Similar to some other species in their family, they have a dark dorsal stripe that extends from their nose to the base of their tails. This stripe varies in thickness across the body and can vary from individual to individual. They have dark pelage around their eyes and ears that generally connects around the nose. This darker pelage can also be found on the dorsal side of their forelimbs and occasionally on the hindlimbs. Additionally, there are few significant differences in the morphology of each sex, but in males, bare patches can be found on the head and throat where secretions can more effectively be released. The pouches of all species are fully formed, but P. australis has a well-furred septum dividing its pouch into two compartments. Juveniles don't differ greatly from adults, their fur just being more downy and slightly longer than most adults.

• Other Physical Features
• endothermic endothermic
• bilateral symmetry bilateral symmetry

• Sexual Dimorphism
• sexes alike

Reproduction

Nesting is in groups of up to seven males and females, then also their young with one or two dominant males doing most of mating. The dominant males are generally heavier, have higher testosterone, and lower cortisol. Mating is done in some monogamous pairs, but when food is abundant, polygynous units are popular. Breeding time is variable depending on species and range, some have specific cycles, while others breed year round when their circumstances allow. They have a 29 day estrous cycle, with generally only one to three young per female, depending on the species. If the first litter is lost or weaned, and if it is still during the breeding period and resources are abundant, the mother can have a second litter.

• Mating System
• monogamous monogamous
• polygynous polygynous

Since the dominant male does the majority of the mating, courting behaviors are not common. In monogamous pairs, males spend around half of their active time within 25m of their partner, and 55-85% of their sleeping time with their female partner.

• Key Reproductive Features
• seasonal breeding seasonal breeding
• year-round breeding year-round breeding
• gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
• sexual sexual
• viviparous viviparous

Gestation ranges from two to three weeks, then it spends around 6 weeks attached to the nipple, emerges from pouch at around 10 weeks, leave the nest after another 6 weeks and is then relatively independent. They reach sexual maturity at about a year, a little less for females, a little more for males, and are producing young until around 8 years of age. Having a larger body mass contributes to higher reproduction rates but less flying efficiency so balancing these features is necessary in their reproductive physiology. They are K selected with low infant mortality, slow metabolism, and fewer offspring per litter.

• Parental Investment
• female parental care female parental care
• pre-hatching/birth
  • provisioning
    • female
• pre-weaning/fledging
  • provisioning
    • female
  • protecting
    • female
• pre-independence
  • protecting
    • female
• post-independence association with parents

Lifespan/Longevity

The lifespans of this genus in the wild has not been widely researched so information is quite sparse. In captivity they have been recorded to live as long as 17.8 years, but in the wild their longevity is strongly decreased, P. australis are known to have lived at least six years in the wild. Since P. breviceps has become a popular exotic pet, their captive lifespan is generally around 10-12 years, though they are considered geriatric around 5-7 years implying that may be close to their lifespan in the wild, before special care and medical interventions are needed.

Behavior

Petaurus species are nocturnal and rest in tree hollows in the day. In harsher times, they are able to achieve temporal heterothermy for up to 16 hours a day. Dominant males survey the area more, keep up territory protection and organize the rest of the group.

• Key Behaviors
• arboreal arboreal
• glides
• nocturnal nocturnal
• motile motile
• sedentary sedentary
• territorial territorial
• social social

Communication and Perception

The dominant male will scent the territory and the individuals in the group to communicate within the group and with surrounding groups and species. They also have a few unique calls, but this has not been recorded or researched much outside of P. australis . In that species, they have specific calls for different predators, and ones to define their territory to intruders. They have adequate vision, but not many specific adaptations for nocturnal living.

• Communication Channels
• acoustic acoustic
• chemical chemical

• Other Communication Modes
• scent marks scent marks

• Perception Channels
• visual visual
• tactile tactile
• acoustic acoustic
• chemical chemical

Food Habits

Petaurus is generally omnivorous, feeding on various things in their environment. Since Eucalyptus of various species is available across the majority of their range, they will feed on its sap by tapping, or the honeydew formed by crystallized sap. They will also feed on nectar and pollens of various flowering plants and insects they find in tree bark. They are also known to occasionally feed on small birds and smaller mammals. The patagium is used to glide from tree to tree when foraging. It has been recorded that the mahogany glider, P. gracilis , spends approximately 44% of its time finding food. While being relatively small, they will aggressively protect a food source from larger animals hoping to get a meal, using claws, teeth, and anything else they can.

• Primary Diet
• omnivore omnivore

Predation

Species within this genus have very complex calling and chemical communication systems. They have specific alarm calls and maintain a home range with their community to keep in contact with each other for protection. In their region, the main predators are feral dogs and cats, owls, foxes, quolls, and a few larger reptiles such as goannas and pythons.

• Anti-predator Adaptations
• cryptic cryptic

Ecosystem Roles

These animals play an often-underrated role in their ecosystems, leaving much to still be discovered about their impacts. They aid in the spreading of pollen and seeds because of their diet, providing a necessary boost to the native Australian vegetation. They generally nest in the hollows of trees if available, creating a bed of leaves, which can then be reused by other animals if abandoned.

• Ecosystem Impact
• disperses seeds
• pollinates

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

P. breviceps is a common exotic pet that has grown in popularity over the past few years. While this species in the pet trade is highly debated, and in some areas, illegal to own or distribute, it is often kept as a unique gliding friend.

• Positive Impacts
• pet trade pet trade

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

There are no known adverse effects of Petaurus on humans.

Conservation Status

While there is not extensive research on the conservation status of Petaurus, the IUCN has information on a few of the species. For P. breviceps , as the most researched of this genus, are least concern and stable. P. australis , P. abidi , P. norfolcensis , and P. gracilis are all decreasing in population, but are at varying levels of concern. P. australis is considered near threatened, P. abidi critically endangered, P. norfolcensis least concern, and P. gracilis endangered. The final species that IUCN has information on is P. biacensis who are considered least concern with unknown population trends as of 2015. This information is somewhat outdated with the amount of environmental change that has occurred to their habitat and around the world. With that being said, the information gives a starting place to infer what might be happening with this genus right now. Since the main concerns for this species involve habitat destruction due to logging industries and urban sprawl, it can be assumed that these problems are still causes for concerns in this genus and are likely still contributing to the current decline. Some action is being taken legally and socially to improve the care for the environment, like replanting forests and labeling protected areas.

Additional Links

Encyclopedia of Life

Contributors

Audrey Bowman (author), Colorado State University, Tanya Dewey (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.

References

Axelson, R. 2021. "Sugar Gliders - Owning" (On-line). VCA Hospitals. Accessed September 29, 2021 at https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/sugar-gliders-owning .

Banks, S. 2017. Conserving and restoring endangered southern populations of the Squirrel Glider (Petaurus norfolcensis) in agricultural landscapes. Ecological Management & Restoration , 18(1): 15-25. Accessed September 12, 2021 at https://doi.org/10.1111/emr.12245 .

Bell, S., C. McAlpine. 2010. Influence of contrasting urban edges on the abundance of arboreal mammals: A study of squirrel gliders ( Petaurus norfolcensis) in southeast Queensland, Australia. Biological Conservation , 143(1): 60-71. Accessed September 12, 2021 at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2009.09.003 .

Brown, M., S. Carthew, S. Cooper. 2007. Monogamy in an Australian arboreal marsupial, the yellow-bellied glider (Petaurus australis). Australian Journal of Zoology , 55 (3): 185-195.

Cremona, T., A. Baker, S. Cooper, R. Montague-Drake, A. Stobo-Wilson, S. Carthew. 2021. Integrative taxonomic investigation of Petaurus breviceps (Marsupialia: Petauridae) reveals three distinct species. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 191(2): 503-527.

Fokidis, B., T. Risch. 2008. The Burden Of Motherhood: Gliding Locomotion In Mammals Influences Maternal Reproductive Investment. Journal of Mammalogy , 89. Issue 3: 617-625.

Goldingay, R., S. Jackson. 2004. The biology of Australian possums and gliders . Chipping Norton, New South Wales: Surey Beatty and Sons.

Goldingay, R. 1994. Loud Calls of the Yellow-Bellied Glider, Petaurus-Australis - Territorial Behavior by an Arboreal Marsupial. Australian Journal of Zoology , 42(3): 279-293.

Goldingay, R. 1989. The behavioural ecology of the gliding marsupial, Petaurus australis . Wollongon, Australia: University of Wollongong.

Jackson, S., R. Thorington Jr. 2012. Gliding mammals: taxonomy of living and extinct species . Washington D.C: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press.

Jackson, S. 2001. Foraging behaviour and food availability of the mahogany glider Petaurus gracilis (Petauridae: Marsupialia). Journal of Zoology , 253(1): 1-13.

Jackson, S., C. Johnson. 2006. Jackson, S. M., and Jackson, C.N. (2002). Time allocation to foraging in the mahogany glider Petaurus gracilis (Marsupialia, Petauridae) and a comparison of activity times in exudivorous and folivorous possums and gliders.. Journal of Zoology , 256(2): 271-277.

Lindenmayer, D. 2002. Gliders Of Australia: A Natural History . Sydney, New South Wales: UNSW Press.

Malekian, M., S. Cooper, J. Norman, L. Christidis, S. Carthew. 2010. Molecular systematics and evolutionary origins of the genus Petaurus (Marsupialia: Petauridae) in Australia and New Guinea. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution , 54(1): 122-135.

McKay, G. 1989. Family Petauridae. Pp. 1-29 in Fauna of Australia , Vol. 1B. Australia: AGPS Canberra. Accessed September 17, 2021 at https://www.environment.gov.au/science/abrs/publications/fauna-of-australia/fauna-1b .

McKay, G. 1982. Nomenclature of the gliding possum genera Petaurus and Petauroides (Marsupialia: Petauridae). Australian Mammalogy , 5: 37-39.

Murray, J., S. Donnellan, G. McKay, R. Rofe, P. Baverstock, D. Hayman, M. Gelder. 1990. The Chromosomes of 4 Genera of Possums From the Family Petauridae (Marsupialia, Diprotodonta). Australian journal of zoology , 38(1): 33-39.

Nowack, J., A. Rojas, G. Kortner, F. Geiser. 2015. Snoozing through the storm: Torpor use during a natural disaster. Scientific Reports , 5(1): 1-6.

Nowak, R. 1999. Walker's Mammals of the World: Volume 1 . Baltimore, Maryland: John's Hopkins University Press.

Sharpe, D., R. Goldingay. 2007. Home Range of the Australian Squirrel Glider, Petaurus norfolcensis (Diprotodontia). Journal of Mammalogy , 88(6): 1515-1522.

Smith, M. 1973. Petaurus hreviceps. MAMMALIAN SPECIES , No. 30: 1-5.

Welsh, D., J. Barling, E. Dalyell, M. Burfitt. 1910. Haemogregarina Petauri: A Haemogregarine of a Marsupial Flying Squirrel . Sydney, New South Wales: The Pathological Laboratories, University of Sydney.

1994. Behavioral and endocrinological correlates of social status in the male sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps Marsupialia: Petauridae). Physiology and Behavior , 55 (6): 1131-1134.

2021. "IUCN Redlist: Petaurus" (On-line). IUCN Redlist. Accessed November 29, 2021 at https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?taxonomies=105642&searchType=species .

2021. "One Zoom: All life" (On-line). Accessed September 21, 2021 at https://www.onezoom.org/life.html .