Geographic Range
Himalayan marmots (
Marmota himalayan
) are 1 of 14
Marmota
species alive today. While members of the genus
Marmota
occur across portions of Asia, Europe, and North America, Himalayan marmots are restricted
to high elevation regions of northwestern south Asia and China. In Asia, Himalayan
marmots occur across the Himalayan Mountains of India, Nepal, and Pakistan. In China,
they are found in several provinces, primarily across the Tibetan Plateau in western,
central, and southern portions of the country.
- Biogeographic Regions
- palearctic
- oriental
Habitat
Himalayan marmots are found most often between timberline and snowline, at elevations
of 3,500 to 5,200 m. Temperatures in these areas typically range from 8 C to 12 C.
Himalayan marmots occur primarily in dry, open habitats, including alpine meadows,
grasslands, and deserts. Much of their habitat falls within the Northwestern Himalayan
alpine shrub and meadows ecoregion. Vegetation in this ecoregion is dominated by stunted
evergreen shrubs and birch-dominated forest patches. At higher elevations, this shrub-dominated
community shifts to open alpine meadows. This ecoregion is largely protected due to
the presence of critically endangered
snow leopards
. Like other marmots, Himalayan marmots dig large burrows, which generally restricts
them to areas with light-textured and adequately deep soil. The burrows of Himalayan
marmots are exceptionally deep, typically ranging from 2.0 to 3.5 m. In preparation
for hibernation, Himalayan marmots dig burrows that are considerably deeper, sometimes
reaching depths of 10 m. These burrows are shared by all members of the colony during
hibernation.
- Habitat Regions
- temperate
- terrestrial
- Terrestrial Biomes
- tundra
- desert or dune
- savanna or grassland
- mountains
- Other Habitat Features
- agricultural
Physical Description
Members of the genus
Marmota
are generally referred to as large ground squirrels. Marmots are large terrestrial
rodents
with stout limbs and short tails. Himalayan marmots are similar in size to an average
house
cat
. They are generally larger than other marmot species across their native range. Himalayan
marmots are particularly stout-bodied and range in length from 475 to 670 mm. They
have relatively large skulls, ranging from 96 to 114 mm in length, and exceptionally
large hind feet, which range in length from 76 to 100 mm. Like other marmots, each
forefoot has four-toes with long concave claws for burrowing, and each hind foot has
five toes. Despite their large body size, Himalayan marmots have shorter tails than
many other marmot species. Their tail length ranges from 125 to 150 mm, comparable
to that of
gray marmots
. Their ears, ranging from 23 to 30 mm in length, are also relatively short compared
to other marmot species. Dorsal
pelage
ranges from yellow to brown, and they often have irregular black or blackish brown
spots, particularly on the face and snout. Ventral pelage is buff yellow to russet.
Two subspecies of Himalayan marmots have been described:
M. himalayana himalayana
and
M. himalayana robusta
.
Marmota himalayana robusta
is especially large, with individuals reported to weigh over 6 kg. In general, Himalayan
marmots range in mass from 4 to 9.2 kg. Sexual dimorphism has not been reported in
this species.
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- homoiothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- sexes alike
Reproduction
Most marmot species are cooperative breeders, and many species live in family groups
consisting of a reproductive territorial pair, subordinate adults, yearlings and young.
Although most marmots are monogamous, in some species, females have multiple mates.
Special care is provided during hibernation, when other adults aid in social thermoregulation
of the young. This may be a form of alloparental care, whereby unrelated adults aid
in care of the offspring.
All species of marmots (
Marmota
spp.) reach reproductive maturity by the age of two. However, reproduction typically
is delayed another year or more. When marmots reproduce early in the year, it is more
physically stressful. Because female marmots do not gain body mass during lactation
(and may lose body mass), early reproduction represents a risk, as these individuals
must rely on favorable future food availability and weather conditions to sustain
their reproductive effort. Reproductive females gain mass at least three weeks later
than barren females, but this time period typically is adequate to restore body mass
similar to that of barren females. The inability of pregnant females to maximize fattening
may lead to reproductive skipping (failure to wean their young). This occurs in most
marmot species.
- Mating System
- monogamous
- polyandrous
- cooperative breeder
Annual mating in Himalayan marmots occurs during February and March, and gestation
lasts up to one month. Like most marmots, Himalayan marmots give birth in late spring
and early summer. This coincides with the end or near end of hibernation. Himalayan
marmots typically produce 2 to 11 offspring per litter. Variation in litter size often
reflects overall population density. When population density is high, females yield
an average of 4.8 offspring per litter. In less dense populations, females average
7 pups per litter. After parturition, offspring are weaned over a 15 day period. Once
offspring are independent, juveniles maintain permanent residences in their familial
communities, which is typical of most marmot species.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- seasonal breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- viviparous
Most marmots provide considerable care to their offspring. In many species, such as
Olympic marmots
, offspring remain in the burrow for at least one month after birth. In Himalayan
marmots, milk is provided to the young during the first 15 days of life. Most marmots
receive nearly constant care from the mother, both while in the burrow and for several
weeks after emerging. After several weeks, offspring of most species are capable of
foraging independently. Blumstein and Armitage (1999) discuss similarities and differences
in cooperative breeding and alloparental care across marmot species but note that
little is known about this aspect of Himalayan marmot reproduction.
- Parental Investment
- precocial
- female parental care
-
pre-weaning/fledging
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-independence
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
- post-independence association with parents
Lifespan/Longevity
Himalayan marmots have an average lifespan of 15 years in the wild. They are rarely
held in captivity and thus, there is no information available concerning the average
lifespan of individuals under these conditions. Typical lifespans for
Marmota
species ranges from 12 to 17 years.
Behavior
Like all
marmots
, Himalayan marmots are diurnal, with activity peaking during morning and late afternoon.
All marmots are social, living in colonies of up to 30 individuals. In Himalayan marmots,
colony size is largely dependent on resource availability. A visible social interaction
among marmots is their greeting, a behavior common to many
rodents
. This greeting occurs after a period of separation, such as when individuals emerge
from their burrows in the morning or afternoon. The greeting consists of a nose-to-nose
or nose-to-mouth interaction, but can progress into a nose-to-cheek exchange. Marmots
are also known to "play fight". Although these interactions appear aggressive, they
typically are not, and the length of play fights varies with age and sex. Mock fights
among female marmots and yearlings are typically of longer duration than those among
adult males and infants.
Himalayan marmots exhibit seasonal variation in behavior. They hibernate for extended
periods, typically for 6 to 8 months during the coldest times of the year. They are
active in spring, summer, and early autumn. Adult females and yearlings spend more
time inside their burrows during late spring and early summer. Adult males spend more
time outside their burrows, being alert and presumably scanning for potential predators,
until August. By mid- to late-August, both sexes spend increased amounts of time in
their burrows.
Home Range
There is no information available regarding the average home range size of Himalayan marmots.
Communication and Perception
Marmots
have strong tactile senses, well-developed for burrowing. Quick reflexes also allow
marmots to respond rapidly to their wide range of environmental influences and social
interactions. Marmots are highly alert and rely heavily on visual and auditory senses
to alert them to potential predators. Per-capita time spent scanning decreases as
colony size increases. For example, Olympic
marmots
tend to spend less time watching for predators, since they commonly forage in groups.
In contrast, individuals that forage alone continually pause, scanning the surrounding
environment for predators. In comparison to marmots feeding in groups, individuals
spend nearly twice the amount of time watching for predators. Distance from their
home burrow also affects alertness. For example,
yellow-bellied marmots
in close range of their burrows, tend to be less vigilant in scanning their surroundings
than those foraging at greater distances.
Himalayan marmots often communicate by whistling or chirping, and using physical behaviors.
When a predator is detected, they produce a series of alarm calls, which have been
observed in many
marmot
species. It is unclear if there is a distinct vocalization associated with mating.
In some species, such as
woodchucks
, males attract reproductive females using pheromones. Certain physical interactions,
such as nestling and nibbling, indicate an individual is ready and willing mate. Because
of their burrowing tendencies, Himalayan marmots are difficult to observe in their
natural habitat. As a result, few detailed studies of their mating behavior have been
conducted.
- Other Communication Modes
- pheromones
Food Habits
Himalayan marmots (
M. himalayana
) are herbivores. Old plant growth is commonly avoided due to the presence of alkaloids,
which emit a bitter, metallic taste. Most
marmots
prefer flowering plants because they are more palatable, and select forage containing
higher amounts of protein, fatty acids and minerals. Plant selection differs throughout
the year since certain flora species are only available seasonally. Himalayan marmots
are sometimes sympatric with livestock (e.g.,
domesticated yaks
) and feed in the same pastures.
- Plant Foods
- leaves
- roots and tubers
- seeds, grains, and nuts
- fruit
Predation
Predators of Himalayan marmots include
snow leopards
,
Tibetan wolves
, and large birds of prey like
bearded vultures
and
golden eagles
. Himalayan marmots are important prey for
snow leopards
, and evidence suggests that they make nearly 20% of the
snow leopard
diet.
Brown bears
may also prey on Himalayan marmots.
Marmots are typically on watch for predators while out of their burrows. Distance
from burrow and colony size are correlated with per-capita time spent scanning, as
greater distances and smaller colonies results in more time spent scanning. When Himalayan
marmots sense a predator approaching, they use a distinct series of calls to alert
other members of their group. These alarm calls consist of rapidly repeating sounds,
beginning with a low frequency call. Each call typically lasts less than 80 milliseconds.
A single series of calls continues for less than 1 second. Alarm calls are repeated
usually every 5 to 20 seconds. Alarm calls in Himalayan marmots can be distinguished
from those produced by other marmots, as the first and second sounds in each series
occur in much more rapid succession.
Ecosystem Roles
Himalayan marmots are important prey for
snow leopards
, which are classified as endangered on the IUCN's Red List of Threatened Species.
They are also important prey for a number of other predatory
mammals
and
birds
. As burrowing animals, they likely help increased soil aeration and water penetration
throughout their geographic range. In addition, abandoned borrows likely serve as
habitat for numerous other species of small
mammals
. There is no information available regarding parasites specific to this species.
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Historically, the flesh of Himalayan marmots reportedly was used in traditional Tibetan
medicine, for treatment of renal disease.
- Positive Impacts
- source of medicine or drug
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
There are no known adverse effects of Himalayan marmots on humans.
Conservation Status
Although current population trends are unknown, Himalayan marmots are classified as
a species of least concern on the IUCN's Red List of THreatened Species. They are
locally abundant throughout their geographic range and show no signs of decline. This
species occurs in habitats protected for
snow leopards
, which is classified as endangered by the IUCN. As a result, they are relatively
unaffected by human impacts throughout much of their range.
Additional Links
Contributors
Lacey Padgett (author), Radford University, Christine Small (author, editor), Radford University, John Berini (editor), Animal Diversity Web Staff.
- Palearctic
-
living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- oriental
-
found in the oriental region of the world. In other words, India and southeast Asia.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- temperate
-
that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).
- terrestrial
-
Living on the ground.
- tundra
-
A terrestrial biome with low, shrubby or mat-like vegetation found at extremely high latitudes or elevations, near the limit of plant growth. Soils usually subject to permafrost. Plant diversity is typically low and the growing season is short.
- desert or dunes
-
in deserts low (less than 30 cm per year) and unpredictable rainfall results in landscapes dominated by plants and animals adapted to aridity. Vegetation is typically sparse, though spectacular blooms may occur following rain. Deserts can be cold or warm and daily temperates typically fluctuate. In dune areas vegetation is also sparse and conditions are dry. This is because sand does not hold water well so little is available to plants. In dunes near seas and oceans this is compounded by the influence of salt in the air and soil. Salt limits the ability of plants to take up water through their roots.
- tropical savanna and grassland
-
A terrestrial biome. Savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy. Extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical Africa and South America, and in Australia.
- savanna
-
A grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees, a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest. See also Tropical savanna and grassland biome.
- temperate grassland
-
A terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes (>23.5° N or S latitude). Vegetation is made up mostly of grasses, the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available. Fire and grazing are important in the long-term maintenance of grasslands.
- mountains
-
This terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains, either without vegetation or covered by low, tundra-like vegetation.
- agricultural
-
living in landscapes dominated by human agriculture.
- endothermic
-
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- monogamous
-
Having one mate at a time.
- polyandrous
-
Referring to a mating system in which a female mates with several males during one breeding season (compare polygynous).
- cooperative breeder
-
helpers provide assistance in raising young that are not their own
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- seasonal breeding
-
breeding is confined to a particular season
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- viviparous
-
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female.
- young precocial
-
young are relatively well-developed when born
- female parental care
-
parental care is carried out by females
- fossorial
-
Referring to a burrowing life-style or behavior, specialized for digging or burrowing.
- diurnal
-
- active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- sedentary
-
remains in the same area
- hibernation
-
the state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced, thus lowering the animal's energy requirements. The act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state, typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals.
- social
-
associates with others of its species; forms social groups.
- colonial
-
used loosely to describe any group of organisms living together or in close proximity to each other - for example nesting shorebirds that live in large colonies. More specifically refers to a group of organisms in which members act as specialized subunits (a continuous, modular society) - as in clonal organisms.
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- pheromones
-
chemicals released into air or water that are detected by and responded to by other animals of the same species
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- drug
-
a substance used for the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease
- herbivore
-
An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.
- folivore
-
an animal that mainly eats leaves.
- frugivore
-
an animal that mainly eats fruit
- granivore
-
an animal that mainly eats seeds
References
Aichun, X., J. Zhigang, L. Chunwang, G. Jixun, W. Guosheng, C. Ping. 2006. Summer food habits of brown bears in Kekexili Nature Reserve, Qinghai–Tibetan plateau, China. Ursus , 17/2: 132-137.
Armitage, K. 1986. Marmot polygyny revisited: determinants of male and female reproductive strategies. Ecological Aspects of Social Evolution , 1: 303-331.
Armitage, K. 1982. Marmots and coyotes: behavior of prey and predator. Journal of Mammalogy , 63: 503-505.
Armitage, K. 2003. Observations on plant choice by foraging Yellow-Bellied Marmots. Oecologia Montana , 12: 25-28. Accessed March 27, 2011 at http://www.eeb.ucla.edu/Faculty/Blumstein/MarmotsOfRMBL/pdfs/Armitage_2003_OecolMont_PlantChoice.pdf .
Armitage, K. 1999. Evolution of sociality in marmots. Journal of Mammalogy , 81/1: 1-10.
Bagchia, S., T. Namgailb, M. Ritchiea. 2006. Small mammalian herbivores as mediators of plant community dynamics in the high-altitude arid rangelands of Trans-Himalaya. Biological Conservation , 127/4: 438-442.
Barash, D. 1989. Marmots: Social behavior and ecology . Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
Blumstein, D., K. Armitage. 1999. Cooperative breeding in marmots. Oikos , 84/3: 369-382.
Burton, M., R. Burton. 2002. Marmot. Pp. 1568-1571 in International Wildlife Encyclopedia , Vol. Third Edition. Tarrytown, New York: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.
Hoffmann, R., A. Smith. 2008. Family Sciuridae. Pp. 172-195 in A Guide to the Mammals of China . Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Jin-hui, X., W. Lin-lin, X. Hui-liang, W. Yu-shan, X. Lai-xiang. 2009. Genetic structure of Himalayan marmot ( Marmota himalayana ) population alongside the Qinghai–Tibet railway. Acta Ecologica Sinica , 29/5: 314-319.
Lu, Y., B. Wang, H. Huang, Y. Tian, J. Bao, J. Dong, M. Roggendorf, M. Lu, D. Yang. 2008. The interferon-a gene family of Marmota himalayana , a Chinese marmot species with susceptibility to woodchuck hepatitis virus infection. Developmental and Comparative Immunology , 32/4: 445-457.
Mishra, C., A. Datta, M. Datta. 2006. Mammals of the high altitudes of western Arunachal Pradesh, eastern Himalaya: an assessment of threats and conservation needs. Cambridge Journals , 40/1: 29-35.
Molur, S., T. Shreshtha. 2008. " Marmota himalayana " (On-line). IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4. Accessed September 15, 2010 at http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/12826/0 .
Nikol'skii, A., A. Ulak. 2006. Key factors determining the ecological niche of the Himalayan marmot, Marmota himalayana (1841). Russian Journal of Ecology , 37/1: 46-52.
Nikol'skii, A., N. Formozov. 2005. The alarm call of Himalayan marmot ( Marmota himalayana , Rodentia, Sciuridae). ZoologiÄŤeskij Ĺľurnal , 84/12: 1497-1507.
Nikol’skii, A. 2007. The influence of amplitude modulation on the structure of call spectrum in marmots (Marmota, Rodentia, Sciuridae). Izvestiya Akademii Nauk , 34/4: 428–436.
Oli, M., I. Taylor, M. Rogers. 1993. Diet of the snow leopard ( Pantheva uncia ) in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. Journal of Zoology , 231/1: 365-370.
Polly, D. 2003. Paleophlogeography: the tempo of geographic differentiation in marmots (Marmota). Journal of Mammalogy , 84/2: 369-384.
Sun, S., G. Sui, Y. Liu, X. Cheng, I. Anand, P. Harris, D. Heath. 1989. The pulmonary circulation of the Tibetan snow pig ( Marmota himalayana ). Journal of Zoology , 217/1: 89-90.
Thorington Jr., R., K. Ferrell. 2006. Squirrel Behavior. Pp. 62-95 in Squirrels: The Animal Answer Guide . Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University press.
Wolff, J., P. Sherman. 2007. Rodent societies: an ecological and evolutionary perspective . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Zimina, R., I. Gerasimov. 1973. The periglacial expansion of marmots ( Marmota ) in middle Europe during late pleistocene. Journal of Mammalogy , 54/2: 327-340.
de Magalhaes, J., A. Budovsky, G. Lehmann, J. Costa, Y. Li, V. Fraifeld,, G. Church. 2009. "The Human Ageing Genomic Resources: online databases and tools for biogerontologists" (On-line). Aging Cell. Accessed March 23, 2011 at http://genomics.senescence.info/species/query.php?search=marmot .