Geographic Range
Nine-banded armadillos are found in South, Central, and North America, and have the
largest range of any extant species of
armadillo
, from Argentina and Uruguay, through Central America and into the southern United
States. As early as 1850, nine-banded armadillos were found no further north than
Texas. Beginning in the late 19th century, they gradually expanded their range to
the northeast. They have been spotted as far east as Florida and are common as far
north as Missouri. In 2000, the dead body of a nine-banded armadillo was discovered
in central Illinois. Migration and establishment of populations northward is likely
limited by the severity of cold, winter weather, for which the species does not have
a strong tolerance. However, if winter seasons become milder, nine-banded armadillos
may continue their migration northward. They can survive short periods of severe cold
by remaining in a burrow for days at a time. Another factor that has limited their
migration westward is dependence on rainfall or other sources of water. For this reason,
nine-banded armadillos have not migrated into the arid, desert regions of New Mexico
and other western states.
Increasing human populations and development of transportation routes are thought
to help rather than hinder the geographic expansion of nine-banded armadillos. The
construction of roads and bridges have both facilitated human introduction of nine-banded
armadillos into new areas, as well as provided a means for wild nine-banded armadillos
to move across the wide waterways and other natural obstacles that would had previously
prevented their expansion. Nine-banded armadillos are able swimmers due to their ability
to hold air in their digestive tract, increasing buoyancy; they are also able to walk
along river bottoms as a result of their ability to maintain a large oxygen debt.
Even so, they do not readily cross large bodies of water. Further, human activities
have caused a decline in many natural predators of North American nine-banded armadillos.
- Biogeographic Regions
- nearctic
- neotropical
Habitat
Nine-banded armadillos most often inhabit forest and scrub-brush areas in tropical
and temperate regions. They are also found in grasslands and savanna regions around
woody areas, but much prefer forests over grasslands because they forage in forest
litter for small invertebrates. Nine-banded armadillos are not often found in arid
regions; they thrive especially in riparian habitats or areas with a sufficient amount
of water and/or at least 38 cm of rain annually. This association with water could
be due the increased number of available food sources in wetter areas or to the softer
soil conditions, making digging and burrowing easier. As long as sufficient food and
water supplies are available, nine-banded armadillos are very adaptable to different
habitats. They have been observed near swampy or marshy regions as well, but do not
commonly inhabit them.
Temperature is also an important factor in choice of habitat. Nine-banded armadillos
begin to shiver at temperatures below 22°C, but the warmth of the burrow allows an
armadillo to inhabit temperate areas during milder winters. At present, nine-banded
armadillos are not common in any regions in which more than 24 freeze-over days occur
annually or the average January temperature drops below -2°C. Nine-banded armadillos
are also more populous in low-lying lands, often around sea-level.
The habitat of nine-banded armadillos is not limited by human presence. They do not
often inhabit areas of dense human population, but the northeastern expansion of nine-banded
armadillos in the United States seems to be linked to man-made roads, bridges, railroads
and other travel routes. This suggests that armadillos use human developments to their
advantage. Their coexistence with humans is often evident by the presence of nine-banded
armadillo roadkill along these routes.
Within the forests, grasslands, and shrublands that nine-banded armadillos inhabit,
they make their homes in underground burrows. Burrows vary in size, but can be up
to 5 m long and 2 m deep. Nine-banded armadillos may bring some grasses and leaves
inside their burrow and they often try to hide the entrance by placing plant debris
around it. A nine-banded armadillo may have up to 12 den sites, but the average is
4 or 5. A male and female may share these burrows during mating season, but usually
a burrow is only shared by a female and her young or by young siblings.
- Habitat Regions
- temperate
- tropical
- terrestrial
- Terrestrial Biomes
- savanna or grassland
- forest
- rainforest
- scrub forest
- Other Habitat Features
- suburban
- agricultural
- riparian
Physical Description
The outer body of Nine-banded armadillos are unmistakable. Like many other
armadillos
,
Dasypus novemcinctus
is covered by an outer body armor made up of bony plates covered in a leathery keratinous
skin. These scales (osteoderms) provide a hard but flexible covering. The osteoderms
are typically rectangular or pentagonal in shape and are developed later than the
rest of the skeleton. The armor comprises about 16% of body weight and is divided
into three main areas of coverage on the body: a pelvic shield, a shield on the shoulder
region, and the characteristic bands of the back. Typically, nine-banded armadillos
have 9 visible bands, but this number may vary from 8 to 11. Each band is separated
by a thin epidermal layer and hairs. Scales grow continuously and wear, but are never
fully shed. The average body length is .752 m. The tail averages about 0.3 m long
and is covered by 12 to 15 rings of scales.
The head is partially covered in these bony/keratinous scales, but the ears lack them.
Instead, ears are hairless and covered in a rough, bumpy skin. The underside also
lacks any armored protection and is of a paler color, generally appearing slightly
yellow. The long snout is much softer and pinkish in color, appearing almost pig-like
with it narrow, tapered shape. The face, neck, and underside are covered in small
clusters of hair.
Nine-banded armadillos have short legs with 4 toes on the forefoot and 5 toes on the
hindfoot; all digits have strong claws, and the middle claws are largest of all. The
skull lacks ossified auditory bullae. It is dorso-ventrally flattened and has a very
distinct dentition. The dentary is v-shaped and the total tooth number ranges from
28 to 32 (8/8). Teeth are simple, small and cylindrical (peg-like). They lack enamel
and continue to grow throughout the animal's lifetime. Nine-banded armadillos possess
long, sticky tongues, which they use in foraging for
insects
.
Sexual dimorphism in nine-banded armadillos is minor with males weighing slightly
more than females (the average male weighs 5.5 to 7.7 kg, while the average female
weighs 3.6 to 6.0 kg).
Nine-banded armadillos maintain a low body temperature, usually ranging from 30° to
35° C. Their basal metabolic rate is also low given their mass (384.4 kJ/day).
- Other Physical Features
- endothermic
- homoiothermic
- bilateral symmetry
- Sexual Dimorphism
- male larger
Reproduction
During the summer breeding season, nine-banded armadillos are often seen pairing.
Nine-banded armadillos are typically solitary animals, so a male and female maintaining
close proximity to one another is unusual. During pairing, the male remains within
a few meters of, and occasionally interacts with, the female as the two forage. Other
behaviors accompany the pairing, including dorsal touches, tail wagging, tail lifting
by the female (which exposes the genitalia), and sniffing and vigilance by the males,
which allows them to maintain their proximity. In some instances, armadillo pairs
have been observed sharing a burrow during pairing/breeding season.
It is thought that a male maintains this close proximity to the female in order to
claim and protect her from other males. Usually only males who have an exclusive home
range pair. In some instances, male on male aggression takes place as a male protects
his rights to a female. It is likely that maintaining such close proximity allows
the male to determine when the female is receptive. Females constantly appear to retreat
from males, which may be an effort to prevent the male from keeping too close before
she is ready to mate. The secretions by the anal glands may have a scent that changes
as a female becomes ready to ovulate. Some observational studies have shown that within
a given breeding season, nine-banded armadillos are polygnous with respect to pairing,
however, pairing may not lead to copulation. This is a topic still under study.
- Mating System
- polygynous
Females have a large external clitoris, while males lack an external scrotum and testes
are internal. The female reproductive tract includes a simplex uterus and paired ovaries
and oviducts. Most females ovulate once a year, usually in early summer (June to July
in the northern hemisphere, November to December in the southern hemisphere). Copulation
occurs during this time of year, with the female positioned on her back.
During conception, only a single ovum is fertilized. The blastocyst stays in the uterus
for about 14 weeks before implantation. During this time, fluids from the uteran lining
keep the blastocyst lubricated and provide nutrients. Nine-banded armadillo reproduction
involves monozygotic polyembryony. That is, when a blastocyst finally implants in
the wall of the uterus, it buds into 4 identical embryos. Every embryo develops its
own amniotic cavity. This embryonic process almost always results in the birth of
four identical quadruplets.
The quadruplets are often born in early spring, after about a 4 month gestation period.
Delayed implantation allows birthing to happen during the spring, when temperatures
are much warmer and food is abundant.
Young are born in an advanced state of development, closely resembling their adult
counterparts but smaller in size. The eyes open quickly, but their leathery skin does
not harden into its characteristic armor for a few weeks. Young of both sexes may
begin breeding as early as the summer following their birth, but they may not reach
full sexual maturity until the age of 2 years. Full development and maturity is attained
by the age of 3 or 4 years.
- Key Reproductive Features
- iteroparous
- seasonal breeding
- gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)
- sexual
- viviparous
- delayed implantation
Young are typically born in spring but do not leave their burrows until late spring
or early summer, after at least a few weeks. When they emerge, they are ready to begin
foraging with their mother. The mother may provide milk for up to 2 to 3 months before
weaning. After weaning the young may remain with their mother for a few additional
months, but no significant long term care or parent-offspring relationship is known.
A young nine-banded armadillo may share a burrow and foraging areas with its siblings
during its first summer and early fall.
- Parental Investment
- precocial
-
pre-fertilization
- provisioning
-
protecting
- female
-
pre-hatching/birth
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
-
pre-weaning/fledging
-
provisioning
- female
-
protecting
- female
-
provisioning
Lifespan/Longevity
Reported life expectancies of nine-banded armadillos range from as low as 7 to 8 years
to more than 20 years. At least one nine-banded armadillo in captivity reached 23
years of age. Juveniles have a higher mortality rate than adults.
The factors influencing longevity of nine-banded armadillos include climate, predation,
and disease. Because this species does not have a significant amount of hair or body
fat, it does not cope well with cold temperatures. A large adult male can survive
no longer than 10 days at 0° C without starving. The larger the animal, the more likely
it will survive colder temperatures. Other environmental conditions, such as drought,
also have an impact on nine-banded armadillo mortality. In one area that experienced
a severe drought, the nine-banded armadillo population completely disappeared due
to death or migration (McDonough and Loughry, 1997).
Predation and death by humans, both purposeful and accidental, are other causes of
mortality. A juvenile is more likely to be killed by a predator in the wild than is
an adult due to its weaker physical state and softer armor.
Disease can be an important contributor to nine-banded armadillo mortality; leprosy, in particular, has an important impact. In one population of nine-banded armadillos, 30% of adults were found to have the bacterium associated with the disease, while 17% had the antibodies, indicating previous exposure.
Behavior
Nine-banded armadillos are nocturnal or crepuscular but forage earlier in the day
during cold or cloudy periods. They do not hibernate, but in the northern part of
their distribution, nine-banded armadillos are more active during summer months. They
cross streams or rivers by swimming or simply walking across the bottom. An armadillo
can accumulate a large oxygen debt and hold its breath for up to 6 minutes. By swallowing
air, the animal can also regulate its buoyancy to some degree. Armadillos tire quickly,
however, and cannot cross wide bodies of water.
Nine-banded armadillos dig burrows by loosening soil with their noses and forelimbs
and then kick the soil away with their hind limbs. A burrow may have several entrances,
but there is a main entrance that the animal preferentially uses. Burrows are between
1 and 5 m in length and located a few cm to 2 m below ground. Nine-banded armadillos
may have multiple burrows, including one for nesting and several shallower ones used
as food traps. Nine-banded armadillos also use naturally occurring above-ground crevices
as nesting sites. The animals carry nesting materials, such as twigs and leaves, by
clutching items to themselves with their forelimbs and hopping bipedally. Rotting
materials may be removed after heavy rainfall. Aside from mating pairs or a mother
with a very young litter, nine-banded armadillos typically do not share burrows. However,
incidences of non-related adults sharing a nest have been documented in cold weather,
and it is speculated that this may be a way for these armadillos to thermoregulate
at the northern limits of their distribution.
Nine-banded armadillos are rarely aggressive toward one another, although a pregnant
or nursing mother may be unusually aggressive, even toward her own older offspring.
During the mating season, older males occasionally exhibit aggressive behavior toward
younger males. Aggressive behavior, such as kicking or chasing, usually does not result
in serious injury. When agitated by a perceived threat, nine-banded armadillos usually
freeze. They can also jump up straight in the air and sprint over short distances.
A frightened nine-banded armadillo usually seeks a burrow, and once inside, arches
its back and braces its feet so that it is difficult to remove. If a burrow is not
nearby, the animal may seek dense thorny underbrush, as it is relatively protected
by its tough exterior.
While nine-banded armadillos curl up, they are not capable of curling itself into
a perfect ball like other species, such as
three-banded armadillos
.
- Key Behaviors
- terricolous
- fossorial
- diurnal
- nocturnal
- crepuscular
- motile
- sedentary
- solitary
- territorial
Home Range
Estimates for the home range size of nine-banded armadillo range from 0.63 to 20.1
hectares. This variation in size is attributable to physical conditions of the surrounding
land, such as soil type and water availability. Home range size is also believed to
increase with age. Female and male home ranges tend to be of similar size, although
adult males tolerate much less overlap. Adults of both sexes may share home ranges
with juveniles and members of the opposite sex. A small number of individuals are
transient.
Communication and Perception
Olfaction is the primary mode of perception used by nine-banded armadillos. Olfaction
is essential while foraging. Nine-banded armadillos travel with their nose just above
the ground and can smell invertebrates up to 20 cm below the surface. They can also
stand bipedally, bracing themselves with their tail and sniff the air to locate food.
Smell may also be important for nine-banded armadillos to orient themselves and recognize
familiar places, although there is no evidence that they employ scent trails. The
animals’ reliance on scent is reflected by corresponding development in their forebrains.
Nine-banded armadillos also have a good sense of hearing, which the animals use in
avoiding predation or other sources of potential danger. Mating pairs also communicate
with a “chucking” sound. Nine-banded armadillos have a poor sense of vision, which
is useless except at close distances, and they are thought to have a poor sense of
touch.
Dasypodidae
species have fewer taste buds than other
mammals
, so it is likely that nine-banded armadillos have a poor sense of taste as well.
- Other Communication Modes
- pheromones
Food Habits
Nine-banded armadillos are generalist, opportunistic feeders. Almost 500 separate
food items make up their diet, and over ninety percent of their diet (by volume) is
made up of animal matter. Adult and larval
beetles
may be the largest component, but nine-banded armadillos also feed on
termites
,
millipedes
,
centipedes
,
ants
,
grasshoppers
,
arachnids
,
earthworms
, and several other
insects
and terrestrial invertebrates. After preying on ant hills, nine-banded armadillos
often roll around vigorously, presumably to remove ants from themselves. Nine-banded
armadillos also feed on small
reptiles
and
amphibians
, especially in the winter when these animals are more sluggish. They occasionally
take baby
mammals
or bird eggs. Less than ten percent of their diet is made up of plant matter, such
as fruit, seeds, and fungi. Dirt, twigs, tree bark, and other indigestible materials
have been found in their stomachs, but the ingestion of such materials is probably
accidental. Nine-banded armadillos occasionally eat carrion, but the animal is probably
more interested in the maggots that inhabit corpses than the meat itself. Nine-banded
armadillos do not chew small prey, but they do chew large invertebrates, vertebrate
animal matter, and plant matter. While foraging, nine-banded armadillos rely primarily
on their sense of smell to locate food items, and they often visit shallow burrows
in search of trapped invertebrates.
- Primary Diet
-
carnivore
- eats terrestrial vertebrates
- insectivore
- eats non-insect arthropods
- vermivore
- scavenger
- omnivore
- mycophage
- Animal Foods
- mammals
- amphibians
- reptiles
- eggs
- carrion
- insects
- terrestrial non-insect arthropods
- terrestrial worms
- Plant Foods
- seeds, grains, and nuts
- fruit
- Other Foods
- fungus
Predation
Nine-banded armadillos have many natural predators, including
pumas
,
maned wolves
,
coyotes
,
black bears
,
red wolves
,
jaguars
,
alligators
,
bobcats
, and
raptors
, which prey on baby nine-banded armadillos. It is believed that the decline of many
natural predator populations in North America has aided in the rapid northern expansion
of this species. Because of their softer carapace, juveniles are more susceptible
to predation than are adults, and this is reflected in their behavior. Young nine-banded
armadillos tend to forage earlier in the day and are more wary of human approach than
are adults. Nine-banded armadillos can jump straight in the air and sprint over short
distances to avoid predators, and often flee to the cover of dense, thorny underbrush
or nearby burrows. The tapered design of their tails makes them difficult to grasp
and, once inside a burrow, nine-banded armadillos arch their backs and brace themselves
against possible removal.
Humans
are also predators to nine-banded armadillos, both intentionally and accidentally.
Nine-banded armadillos are hunted in many rural areas for their meat and skin, while
auto accidents claim the lives of thousands of individuals each year.
Ecosystem Roles
Armadillos
are scavengers and consumers of many kinds of invertebrates. They have a relatively
lower body temperature than other
mammals
and their carapace makes them poor thermoregulators. These characteristics result
in a poor immune system. Thus, nine-banded armadillos are host to a variety of bacterial
and protozoan parasites, perhaps the most notable being
Mycobacterium leprae
, the bacterium responsible for leprosy. Nine-banded armadillos are also associated
with some parasitic ticks, such as
Amblyomma auricularium
. Because they inhabit damp, dirt-filled environments, nine-banded armadillos harbor
several species of fungi, some of which are responsible for human diseases. It is
unclear whether these fungi function as commensalists or parasites. For example, nine-banded
armadillos infected with the fungus,
Paracoccidiodies brasiliensis
, which causes a mycosis in humans, appear healthy. Yet the fungus was detected in
the animals’ lymph nodes, indicating illness.
Fan-tailed warblers
have been observed following nine-banded armadillos while they forage, searching
for prey revealed by the armadillos’ activities. The abandoned burrows of nine-banded
armadillos may be occupied by
pine snakes
. However, these burrows may also pose a threat to large terrestrial vertebrates that
accidentally step in them. It has been proposed that nine-banded armadillo carrion
resulting from road kill is becoming an important food source for some species of
birds
. Nine-banded armadillos were introduced to Florida, and there is concern that they
may be exerting predation pressure on endangered endemic Florida
reptiles
. In addition, nine-banded armadillos may force
Gopherus polyphemus
, an endangered Floridian tortoise, from their burrows and claim them for itself.
- Ecosystem Impact
- creates habitat
- Louisiana pine snakes ( Pituophis ruthveni )
- fan-tailed warblers ( Euthlypis lachrymosa )
- ticks ( Amblyomma auricularium )
- fungus ( Paracoccidiodies brasiliensis )
- Fungi
- ticks ( Ixodides )
Economic Importance for Humans: Positive
Armadillos
, including nine-banded armadillos, play a large role in medical research because
they harbor a number of protozoan, bacterial, and fungal pathogens that are responsible
for human disease. Perhaps the two most heavily studied pathogens are the fungus
Paracoccidiodies brasiliensis
, which is responsible for a widespread mycosis in Brazil, and the bacterium
Mycobacterium leprae
, which causes leprosy. Nine-banded armadillos are important predators of a variety
of commong insect agricultural pests. In addition, nine-banded armadillos are hunted
for their meat and skin, which is used to make various trinkets.
- Positive Impacts
- food
- body parts are source of valuable material
- research and education
- controls pest population
Economic Importance for Humans: Negative
Despite feeding on crop pests, nine-banded armadillos can be a nuisance for human
agriculture. They feed on several crops, including peanuts, corn and cantaloupe. Their
burrows pose threats to livestock animals, who may accidentally step in them. Furthermore,
their burrows can weaken road shoulders and dikes. They also carry and can transmit
diseases.
- Negative Impacts
-
injures humans
- carries human disease
- crop pest
Conservation Status
Due to their high reproduction rate and expanding distribution, nine-banded armadillos
are not considered in any danger. In fact, throughout most of their distribution,
their population size is increasing.
Additional Links
Contributors
George Hammond (editor), Animal Diversity Web Staff, Gail McCormick (editor), Animal Diversity Web Staff.
Kahli McDonald (author), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, Julie Larson (author), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, Phil Myers (editor, instructor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, Tanya Dewey (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.
- Nearctic
-
living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.
- introduced
-
referring to animal species that have been transported to and established populations in regions outside of their natural range, usually through human action.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- Neotropical
-
living in the southern part of the New World. In other words, Central and South America.
- native range
-
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
- temperate
-
that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).
- tropical
-
the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.
- terrestrial
-
Living on the ground.
- tropical savanna and grassland
-
A terrestrial biome. Savannas are grasslands with scattered individual trees that do not form a closed canopy. Extensive savannas are found in parts of subtropical and tropical Africa and South America, and in Australia.
- savanna
-
A grassland with scattered trees or scattered clumps of trees, a type of community intermediate between grassland and forest. See also Tropical savanna and grassland biome.
- temperate grassland
-
A terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes (>23.5° N or S latitude). Vegetation is made up mostly of grasses, the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available. Fire and grazing are important in the long-term maintenance of grasslands.
- forest
-
forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality.
- rainforest
-
rainforests, both temperate and tropical, are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground. Epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant. Precipitation is typically not limiting, but may be somewhat seasonal.
- scrub forest
-
scrub forests develop in areas that experience dry seasons.
- suburban
-
living in residential areas on the outskirts of large cities or towns.
- agricultural
-
living in landscapes dominated by human agriculture.
- riparian
-
Referring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody (usually, but not always, a river or stream).
- endothermic
-
animals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature. Endothermy is a synapomorphy of the Mammalia, although it may have arisen in a (now extinct) synapsid ancestor; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities. Convergent in birds.
- bilateral symmetry
-
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
- polygynous
-
having more than one female as a mate at one time
- iteroparous
-
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
- seasonal breeding
-
breeding is confined to a particular season
- sexual
-
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
- viviparous
-
reproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female.
- delayed implantation
-
in mammals, a condition in which a fertilized egg reaches the uterus but delays its implantation in the uterine lining, sometimes for several months.
- young precocial
-
young are relatively well-developed when born
- fossorial
-
Referring to a burrowing life-style or behavior, specialized for digging or burrowing.
- diurnal
-
- active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.
- nocturnal
-
active during the night
- crepuscular
-
active at dawn and dusk
- motile
-
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
- sedentary
-
remains in the same area
- solitary
-
lives alone
- territorial
-
defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- pheromones
-
chemicals released into air or water that are detected by and responded to by other animals of the same species
- visual
-
uses sight to communicate
- tactile
-
uses touch to communicate
- acoustic
-
uses sound to communicate
- chemical
-
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
- carrion
-
flesh of dead animals.
- food
-
A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.
- carnivore
-
an animal that mainly eats meat
- insectivore
-
An animal that eats mainly insects or spiders.
- scavenger
-
an animal that mainly eats dead animals
- omnivore
-
an animal that mainly eats all kinds of things, including plants and animals
- mycophage
-
an animal that mainly eats fungus
References
Atansanov, A. 2007. The linear allometric relationship between total metabolic energy per life span and body mass of mammals. Biosystems , 90: 224-233.
Bagagli, E., S. De Moraes Gimenens Bosco. 2008. Armadillos and dimorphic pathogenic fungi. Pp. 281-293 in The Biology of the Xenarthra . Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
Chapman, J., G. Feldhamer. 1982. Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Economics . 1982: John Hopkins University Press.
Cheadle, M., S. Tanhauser, J. Dame, D. Sellon, P. Hines, R. MacKay, E. Greiner. 2001. The nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) is an intermediate host for Sarcocystis neurona. International Journal for Parasitology , 31(4): 330-335.
Ealy, M., R. Fleet, D. Rudolph. 2004. Diel activity patterns of the Louisiana pine snake (Pituophis ruthveni) in eastern Texas. Texas Journal of Science , 56: 383-394.
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